RURAL  TEXT-BOOK 
SERIES 


TEXT-BOOK 
OF  LAND 
DRAINAGE 


JEFFERY 


L.  H.  BAILEY 

EDITOR 


Ube  IRurai  UeiWBoofe  Series 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 


TEXT-BOOK   OF   LAND   DRAINAGE 


Ifrural  SText^ooft  Series 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 

Carleton,  THE  SMALL  GRAINS. 

B.  M.  Duggar,  PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY,  with 
special  reference  to  Plant  Production. 

J.  F.  Duggar,  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS. 

Gay,  THE  BREEDS  OP  LIVE-STOCK. 

Gay,  THE  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF 
JUDGING  LIVE-STOCK. 

Goff,  THE  PRINCIPLES  OP  PLANT  CULTURE, 
Revised. 

Harper,  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  FOR  SCHOOLS. 

Harris  and  Stewart,  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF 
AGRONOMY. 

Hitchcock,  A  TEXT -BOOK  OF  GRASSES. 

Jeffery,  TEXT-BOOK  OF  LAND  DRAINAGE. 

Livingston,  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION. 

Lyon,  Pippin  and  Buckman,  SOILS  —  THEIR 
PROPERTIES  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

Mann,  BEGINNINGS   IN  AGRICULTURE. 

Montgomery,  THE  CORN  CROPS. 

Piper,    FORAGE  PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Warren,  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Warren,  FARM  MANAGEMENT. 

Wheeler,  MANURES  AND  FERTILIZERS. 

White,  PRINCIPLES  OF  FLORICULTURE. 

Widtsoe,  PRINCIPLES  OF  IRRIGATION  PRAC- 
TICE. 


TEXT-BOOK 

OF 

LAND   DRAINAGE 


BY 


JOSEPH   A.   JEFFERY 

LAND    COMMISSIONER    DULUTH    SOUTH    SHORE    AND    ATLANTIC 

RAILWAY  ;    FORMERLY  PROFESSOR  OF  SOILS  IN  THE 

MICHIGAN   AGRICULTURAL    COLLEGE 


gorfc 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1916 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1916, 
BY  THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 

Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  May,  1916. 


•        '-  "1 


Norton  ot! 

J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


AUTHOR'S   PREFACE 

THE  low  yields  of  farm  crops  in  this  country  are 
frequently  used  as  a  basis  for  speculation  as  to  the 
future  limit  of  food  supply.  The  causes  for  these 
low  yields  are  variously  estimated.  Bad  management, 
over-cropping,  loss  of  soil  fertility,  washing  away  of 
soils,  "changing  climatic  conditions,"  and  even  "over- 
drainage  "  are  among  the  more  prominent  of  the  causes 
named.  "  Bad  management  "  is  a  very  comprehensive 
term.  "  Loss  of  soil  fertility  "  is  a  much  used  expres- 
sion, but  indifferently  understood.  Sometimes  it  is 
properly  applied,  but  in  many  cases  it  probably  does 
not  apply  except  in  so  far  as  it  may  be  synonymous 
with  malnutrition  of  the  crop. 

The  improper  functioning  of  common  soils,  because 
of  the  extended  presence,  at  some  time  during  each 
year,  of  excessive  amounts  of  water,  is  seldom  men- 
tioned ;  and  yet  one  needs  but  to  travel  through  the 
land  with  an  observant  eye  in  the  cropping  season  to 
discover  areas  (even  in  the  so-called  "  garden  spots  ") 
where  half  stands  exist,  fourth  stands,  and  actually  no 
stands  for  a  half  field  or  whole  field,  indicating  failure 
in  germination  or  very  soon  thereafter.  He  discovers 
sickly  full  stands,  half  stands  and  less;  also  drowned 
areas,  and  places  where  no  crops  have  been  planted  — 
"  skipped  areas "  —  in  fields  that  in  other  parts  have 
a  thrifty  appearance  of  crops. 

It  is  difficult,  indeed,  to  estimate  the  losses  resulting 
from  such  conditions.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  if 
many  of  these  fields  could  function  as  well  over  their 
whole  areas  as  in  their  best  parts,  their  average  yields 


vi  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

would  be  very  markedly  increased.  It  is  equally  true 
that  if  all  the  lands  on  all  the  farms  were  properly 
drained  and  given  the  chance  to  do  their  best,  total  yields 
and  total  averages  would  be  enormously  augmented. 

These  losses  and  the  means  of  correcting  them  are 
the  theme  of  this  text.  In  the  preparation  of  the  ma- 
terial for  the  volume,  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  put 
into  simple  and  concise  terms  the  fundamentals  of  our 
knowledge  concerning  the  relation  of  water  to  agri- 
culture, and  of  the  relation  of  drainage  to  soil  water. 
The  practical  farmer  has  been  in  mind  much  more  than 
the  engineer.  Material  has  been  introduced  at  the  risk 
of  the  charge  of  repetition,  or  even  of  the  incorporation 
of  extraneous  material,  and  for  these  reasons : 

1.  That  many  persons  who  may  use  the  work  will 
not  have  had  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  these  matters 
to  appreciate  the  importance  of  drainage  in  agricultural 
practice. 

2.  That  many  persons,  including  college  men,  who 
may  have  taken  courses  in  the  physics  of  soils,  will  not 
have  sufficiently  correlated  the  knowledge  so  acquired 
to  appreciate  the  inter-relations  between  the  physical 
conditions  existing  in  soils,  nor,  consequently,  the  im- 
portance of  drainage  in  agricultural  practice. 

3.  The  constituency  is  various.     While  designed  spe- 
cially as  a  text  for  students,  it  is  hoped  that  the  book 
will  find  a  place  with  the  working  farmer. 

Acknowledgments  are  due  to  various  friends  for  in- 
formation and  suggestions  in  the  preparation  of  the 
manuscript.  Acknowledgments  are  especially  due  to 
Dr.  George  J.  Bouyoucos  and  Charles  H.  Spurway,  who 
were  at  one  time  associated  with  the  author  in  College 

work<  JOSEPH   A  JEFFERY. 

DULUTH,  MINN., 
December,  1915. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   I 

PAGES 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  SOILS    .......          1-28 

Chemical  and  physical  composition  of  soils,  1 ;  Phys- 
ical condition  of  soil,  2.  Temperature:  Food  require- 
ments of  plants,  3  ;  Temperature  and  food  preparation, 
4  ;  Chemical  and  physical  activities,  5 ;  Biological  ac- 
tivities, 6 ;  Nitrogen  preparation,  7  ;  Temperature  and 
nitrification,  8 ;  Nitrogen  fixation,  9 ;  Temperature  and 
germination,  10;  Desirable  temperature  condition,  11; 
Later  effects,  12  ;  A  rare  case,  13  ;  Temperature  and 
root  action,  14 ;  Root  pressure,  15  ;  Root  development, 
16  ;  Best  temperature  for  root  action,  17 ;  Tempera- 
ture and  the  rest-period,  18  ;  Actual  temperatures,  19. 
Ventilation :  Ventilation  and  food  preparation,  20 ; 
Prevention  of  food  destruction,  21 ;  Ventilation  and 
germination,  22 ;  Ventilation  and  root  action,  23  ;  Re- 
moval of  objectionable  products,  24.  Soil  Structure: 
Ideal  condition  of  structure,  25 ;  Over-mellowness,  26  ; 
Structure  and  germination,  27 ;  Structure  arid  root 
development,  28 ;  Root  development  restricted  by  fis- 
suring,  29  ;  Injury  to  roots  by  fissuring,  30.  Water : 
Moisture  and  food  preparation,  31 ;  Moisture  and  ger- 
mination, 32  ;  Water  the  solvent  and  carrier,  33  ;  Serv- 
ice of  water  within  the  plant,  34 ;  Quantities  of  water 
required  by  crops,  35  ;  Conditions  of  water,  36 ;  Gravi- 
tational water,  37  ;  Capillary  water,  38  ;  Hygroscopic 
water,  39;  Movements  of  soil  water,  40;  Capillary 
movements,  41 ;  Surface  tension,  42  ;  Direction  of  cap- 
illary movement,  43  ;  Hygroscopic  movements,  44. 


Viii  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   II 

PAGES 

PHYSICAL  INTER-RELATIONS  IN  SOILS    .....         29-57 

Influence  of  Capillary  Water  on  Other  Physical  Con- 
ditions :  Capillary  water  and  soil  structure,  46 ;  Capil- 
lary water  and  plowing,  46  ;  Correct  moisture  condition 
for  plowing,  47 ;  Effect  of  correct  plowing  on  the  later 
preparation  of  the  seed-bed,  48  ;  Sources  of  soil  heat, 
49  ;  Capillary  water  and  soil  temperature,  50  ;  Specific 
heat  of  soils,  51  ;  Proper  water  content  for  agricultural 
soils,  52  ;  Effect  of  water  on  soil  temperature,  53  ;  Warm 
and  cold  soils,  54  ;  Over-wet  soils  are  cold  soils,  55 ; 
Heat  of  vaporization,  56  ;  A  concrete  example,  57 ;  Cap- 
illary water  and  ventilation,  58.  Influence  of  Soil 
Structure  upon  Other  Physical  Conditions:  Agencies 
active  in  soil  ventilation,  69  ;  Relation  of  soil  structure 
to  soil  ventilation,  60  ;  Effects  of  life-forms,  61 ;  Influ- 
ence of  soil  structure  on  capillary  water,  62 ;  Influence 
of  soil  structure  on  temperature,  63.  Influence  of  Gravi- 
tational Water  on  Other  Physical  Conditions  :  A  replen- 
isher  of  capillary  water,  64  ;  Assists  in  soil  ventilation, 
65 ;  A  cleanser  of  soils,  66  ;  Standing  water  or  gravita- 
tional water  in  fields  destroys  soil  structure,  67  ;  Increased 
labor  required  to  fit  puddled  soils  for  crops,  68  ;  Gravi- 
tational water  may  interfere  with  ventilation,  69 ;  Gravi- 
tational water  and  food  losses,  70 ;  Gravitational  water 
and  soil  temperature,  71  ;  Increased  specific  heat,  72 ; 
Heat  lost  in  the  evaporation  of  gravitational  water,  73 ; 
The  effects  of  gravitational  water  upon  temperature 
through  bad  soil  structure,  74  ;  The  relations  of  capil- 
lary water  summarized,  75  ;  The  relations  of  gravita- 
tional water  summarized,  76.  Drainage  Effects  :  Effects 
of  the  permanent  removal  of  standing  water,  77  ;  The 
way  in  which  the  changes  take  place,  78;  Ventilation 
plays  a  part,  79 ;  Other  agents,  80  ;  Animal  forms,  81 ; 
Food-preparers,  82  ;  The  final  results,  83. 


CONTENTS  ix 

CHAPTER  III 

PAGES 

HUMID  AREAS  AND  THEIR  RECLAMATION      ....         58-68 

Common  swamps,  84  ;  Alluvial  plains,  85  ;  Swamps 
of  the  drift  regions,  86  ;  Marine  marshes,  87  ;  Reclama- 
tion of  common  swamp  lands,  88 ;  Reclaiming  delta 
lands,  89 ;  Size  of  the  unit,  90 ;  How  the  expense  of 
installing,  operating,  and  upkeep  is  met,  91  ;  Reclaim- 
ing the  swamp  lands  of  the  drift  regions,  92 ;  A  diked 
farm  in  Michigan,  93  ;  Reclaiming  marine  marsh  lands, 
94  ;  Economic  oversights,  95  ;  Areas  of  imperfect  natu- 
ral drainage,  96 ;  Small  wet  areas,  97  ;  Proportion  of 
waste  land,  98. 

CHAPTER   IV 
GENERAL  DRAINAGE  INFORMATION         .  .         .         69-93 

Lands  requiring  drainage,  99 ;  Methods  of  drainage, 
100  ;  Open  ditches,  101 ;  Shallow  open  ditches,  102 ;  Tile 
drainage,  103.  Tile  :  Kinds  of  tile,  104  ;  Common  clay 
tile,  105 ;  Glazed  tile,  106 ;  Cement  tile,  107  ;  Difficulties 
with  cement  tile,  108  ;  Precautions,  109  ;  How  water 
enters  the  tile,  110;  Tile  systems,  111;  Outlet,  112; 
Depth  of  tile  drain,  113 ;  The  distance  apart  of  tile 
drains,  114  ;  How  water  approaches  the  tile  drains,  115 ; 
Size  of  tile  to  use,  116  ;  Grade  or  fall,  117  ;  Relation  of 
size  of  tile  to  the  grade,  118  ;  Uniformity  of  grade,  119  ; 
Silt-basins,  120  ;  How  the  silt-basin  performs  its  work, 
121 ;  The  construction  of  a  silt-basin,  122 ;  Finishing 
the  silt-basin,  123. 

CHAPTER  V 
LEVELING        .         .        .        .  ...'...       94-107 

The  level,  124  ;  Cheaper  levels,  125 ;  Leveling  rods, 
126;  Target,  127  ;  Using  the  level,  128;  Setting  up  the 
level,  129;  Cautions,  130;  Determining  the  height  of 
the  level,  131 ;  Direct  reading,  132  ;  Target  reading,  133 ; 


CONTENTS 


Back-sight  reading  and  its  use,  134  ;  Elevation  of  other 
points,  135 ;  Fore-sight  reading  and  its  use,  136  ;  Cau- 
tions, 137  ;  Records  and  computations,  138 ;  Directions 
and  explanations,  139  ;  Moving  and  resetting  the  instru- 
-ment,  140;  Using  cheaper  kinds  of  levels,  141 ;  Simple 
devices  sometimes  used  in  leveling,  142  ;  The  carpenter's 
level,  143  ;  The  water  level,  144 ;  The  hose  level,  145. 

CHAPTER  VI 

LAYING  OUT  A  DRAIN  OR  SYSTEM 108-133 

Establishing  the  point  of  outlet,  146  ;  Laying  out  a 
drain,  147  ;  Grade  stakes,  148 ;  Finders,  149 ;  Laying 
out  a  main,  150  ;  Fifty-foot  intervals,  151  ;  The  relation 
of  angle  of  approach  to  the  main  to  the  actual  distance 
between  laterals,  152  ;  Laterals,  163 ;  The  angle  of  ap- 
proach for  laterals,  154 ;  The  location  of  the  upper  end 
of  mains  and  laterals,  155  ;  Measurements,  156 ;  Esti- 
mate of  and  order  for  tile,  157  ;  Hauling  and  distributing 
tile,  158  ;  Leveling  for  the  drain,  159  ;  Steps  in  the  pro- 
cedure, 160  ;  Keeping  notes,  161 ;  Some  convenient  aids, 
162  ;  Leveling  with  cheaper  levels,  163  ;  Leveling  with 
a  high-grade  level,  164  ;  Making  the  computations,  165 ; 
Computations  in  detail,  166  ;  A  comparison  of  tables, 
167  ;  Preliminaries  to  establishing  grade  of  ditch,  cut, 
and  the  like,  168 ;  The  grade  or  fall,  169  ;  The  depth 
of  cut,  170  ;  Grade  bars,  171 ;  Boning  line  and  boning 
rod,  172  ;  Determining  height  of  bar  above  grade  stake, 
173 ;  Using  the  data,  174. 


CHAPTER  VII 
CONSTRUCTION         ...        .        ... 

Ditching  tools,  175  ;  Horse  and  power  machines,  176  ; 
Setting  up  grade  bars,  177;  Checking,  178;  Begin  the 
work  at  the  outlet,  179  ;  Opening  the  ditch,  180 ;  Re- 
moving the  soil,  181  ;  Finishing  the  ditch,  182  ;  Correct- 
ing depth,  183 ;  Laying  the  tile,  184 ;  Making  close 
joints,  185 ;  Fitting  the  joints,  186 ;  Blinding,  187 ; 
Closing  the  upper  end  of  the  drain,  188  ;  Filling  the 


134-151 


CONTENTS 


XI 


ditch,  189 ;  Finishing  the  outlet,  190 ;  Screen,  191  ; 
Trap,  192  ;  Laterals,  193  ;  Leveling  for  laterals,  194 ; 
Making  provision  for  lateral  outlet  when  laying  the 
main,  195 ;  Joining  laterals  to  mains,  196  ;  Side  con- 
nection, 197  ;  Top  connection,  198  ;  Angles,  199 ;  Mak- 
ing openings  through  tile,  200  ;  Designating  the  sub- 
mains  and  laterals  in  the  records,  201. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

OTHER  CONDITIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

Underground  outlets,  202  ;  Drain  heads,  203  ;  Drain- 
age by  wells,  204  ;  Quicksand,  205  ;  Protection  to  joints 
against  quicksand,  206  ;  Boggy  and  springy  places,  207  ; 
To  remove  excessive  surface  water,  208  ;  Tile  in  muck 
soil  should  be  laid  deep,  209 ;  Gravitational  water  in 
irrigated  lands,  210;  Cost  of  tiling,  211;  Order  of  steps 
in  tiling,  212. 

CHAPTER   IX 


THE  HOSE-LEVEL    . 


Accuracy  of  reading,  213  ;  Availability  and  cost,  214 ; 
Materials  needed,  215  ;  Suggestions,  216 ;  Constructing 
the  hose-level,  217  ;  Introducing  the  water,  218  ;  Re- 
moving air  bubbles  from  the  hose-level,  219;  Checking 
up  the  instrument,  220 ;  Leveling  rods,  221  ;  Construc- 
tion of  rods,  222  ;  System  of  reading,  223 ;  To  use  the 
apparatus,  224 ;  How  to  read  height  of  column,  225 ; 
The  reading,  226  ;  Moving,  227  ;  Recording  data,  228  ; 
Positive  readings,  229  ;  Negative  readings,  230 ;  Com- 
puting elevations,  231 ;  The  rule  is  apparent,  232 ;  Re- 
cording reading  taken,  in  feet  and  inches,  233  ;  Relation 
of  values,  234. 

CHAPTER   X 

USING  THE  HOSE-LEVEL  WITHOUT  LEVELING  RODS      .        \ 
Long  stakes,  235 ;    To  establish  datum  plane,  236 ; 
Leveling,  237  ;  The  height  of  grade  bars,  238  ;  To  deter- 
mine fall  by  hose-level,  239 ;  Computations,  240 ;  Plac- 


152-164 


165-179 


180-186 


Xll 


CONTENTS 


ing  the  marks  for  grade  bars,  241 ;  Checking  up  on 
depth  of  ditch,  242  ;  Breaking  the  grade,  243  ;  Placing 
the  grade  bars,  244  ;  Checking  the  bars,  245 ;  Grade 
stakes  and  finders  not  needed,  246  ;  For  more  extensive 
work,  247. 

CHAPTER   XI 

DRAINAGE  INDICATIONS 

Low  flat  areas  of  light  soil,  248  ;  Considerable  slopes 
of  light  soil,  249;  Extended  flat  or  even  moderately 
rolling  areas  of  heavy  soils,  250;  Limited  flat  or  de- 
pressed areas  on  slopes,  251  ;  Limited  flat  or  depressed 
areas  on  hilltops,  252  ;  Springy  low  flat  areas,  253  ; 
Springy  areas  upon  slopes,  254  ;  Muck  or  swamp  areas, 
255 ;  Small  muck  areas  without  natural  outlets,  256 ; 
Shallow  ponds  resting  upon  muck  beds,  257  ;  Shallow 
ponds  resting  on  other  than  muck  beds,  258 ;  Shallow 
ponds  not  having  sufficient  fall  or  natural  outlet,  259  ; 
Low  flat  areas  whose  surfaces  lie  only  slightly  above 
that  of  an  adjacent  stream  or  lake,  which  cannot  be 
lowered  by  drainage,  260 ;  Situations  already  referred 
to,  261. 


CHAPTER   XII 
DRAINAGE  AND  THE  GROUND  WATER  SUPPLY 


The  ground  water-table  is  falling,  262 ;  Interesting 
facts  concerning  ground  water-tables,  263  ;  Chief  causes 
resulting  in  lowering  of  ground  water,  264  ;  Increasing 
the  run-off,  265 ;  Increasing  evaporation,  266  ;  The  re- 
moval of  surface  reservoirs,  267  ;  Direct  draft  upon 
underground  waters,  268 ;  The  interpretations  placed 
on  the  fact  of  a  falling  ground  water-table,  269  ;  Crop 
needs,  270 ;  Animal  needs,  271  ;  The  meaning  of  the 
lowering  of  the  ground  water-table  in  terms  of  rainfall, 
272  ;  Intelligent  soil  management  needed,  273  ;  The  case 
not  serious,  274  ;  The  real  relation  of  drainage  to  capil- 
lary and  ground  water,  275  ;  The  experience  of  other 
countries,  276  ;  Optimism,  277. 


187-199 


200-207 


CONTENTS 


Xlll 


CHAPTER  XIII 

DRAINAGE  AND  CLIMATE        .        v        ....         . 

Diminishing  rainfall,  278;  Floods  and  their  relation 
to  rainfall,  279  ;  The  relation  of  forests  to  floods,  280  ; 
The  relation  of  drainage  to  floods,  281 ;  Observations 
concerning  rainfall,  282  ;  Drainage  and  rainfall,  283  ; 
Changing  temperature,  284 ;  Changes  in  frost  dates, 
285  ;  Wooded  areas  and  frosts,  286 ;  Drainage  and  sur- 
face temperature,  287. 


PAGES 

208-214 


CHAPTER   XIV 
DRAINAGE  LAWS    .         .         .         -.         .         .         .        . 

The  right  of  the  individual  to  drain  his  property  when 
it  lies  adjacent  to  a  natural  water  course,  288  ;  The  right 
of  an  individual  to  drain  his  property  when  not  lying 
adjacent  to  natural  water  courses,  289  ;  The  right  of  a 
group  of  individuals  to  drain,  290 ;  A  petition  must  be 
prepared,  291  ;  Action  upon  the  petition,  292  ;  Objec- 
tions must  be  heard,  293  ;  The  proposed  district  must 
be  examined,  294  ;  The  organization  of  the  district  must 
be  authorized,  295 ;  The  work  of  construction,  296 ; 
Grievances,  297;  Time  a  factor,  298;  Records,  299; 
Mutual  agreements,  300  ;  Unlawful  acts  ;  penalties,  301. 


215-224 


APPENDIX 


LABORATORY  PRACTICE 


225-245 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


1.  Drawing  to  show  how  the  plant  receives  its  several  food 

elements ..........        4 

2.  Effects  of  temperature  on  germination 9 

3.  Effects  of  ventilation  on  germination 15 

4.  Effects  of  ventilation  on  germination     .         .        .         .         .16 

5.  Effects  of  ventilation  on  germination     .         ...         .17 

6.  Effects  of  ventilation  on  germination     .....       18 

7.  A  mass  of  soil  particles  surrounded  by  capillary  film,  shown 

in  section 27 

8.  A  mass  of  sandy  loam  formed  under  pressure  of  the  hand 

and  held  in  shape  by  capillary  moisture  ....       30 

9.  Same  soil  as  shown  in  Fig.  8,  but  after  a  slight  pressure  of 

the  fingers  was  applied 30 

10.  A  mass  of  the  same  soil  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  8,  but  with  an 

over-amount  of  capillary  moisture,  as  is  proven  in  Fig.  11      31 

11.  Same  soil  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  10 32 

12.  Illustrating  soil  crumbs 32 

13.  Chart  indicating  diagrammatically  the  number  of  English 

heat  units  required  to  raise  the  amount  of  water,  the 
amount  of  dry  soil,  and  the  combinations  of  soil  and 
water,  respectively,  shown  in  the  lower  part  of  the  chart, 
33°  in  temperature 35 

14.  Chart  showing  the  effect  of  a  given  amount  of  heat  in  raising 

the  temperature  of  soils  with  different  water  content      .       37 

15.  Chart  showing  the  temperature  effects  of  the  heat  required 

to  raise  three  types  of  soil  with  their  normal  water  con- 
tent from  32°  F.  to  65°  F.  of  temperature  ...  38 

16.  The  effect  of  lumps  lying  on  the  surface  of  a  field          .        .      42 

17.  A  mass  of  sand  loam  held  in  shape  by  a  capillary  film  .         .       45 

18.  Pyramid  of  sandy  loam  held  in  position  by  a  capillary  film  .       45 

19.  The  appearance  of  a  recently  plowed  soil  mass  when  the 

plowing  has  been  performed  with  the  soil  in  proper 
capillary  moisture  condition  ...  .  .  .  46 


xvi  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

20.  The  appearance  of  soil  plowed  in  an  over-dry  condition        .       47 

21.  A  column  of  heavy  clay  showing  the  cleavages  which  take 

place  upon  air  drying       .        .         .        .         .      ;  .         .       55 

22.  Map  of  township  in  La  Fourche  Parish,  Louisiana,  showing 

the  way  in  which  the  early  French  Acadian s  plotted 
their  farms  on  the  naturally  drained  margins  of  the 
rivers  and  bayous 59 

23.  A  1760-acre  unit  diked  for  reclamation          .  63 

24.  A  system  of  parallel  drains 77 

25.  A  system    comprising  a  main   with   laterals   approaching 

obliquely          .........       78 

26.  A  system  in  which  the  laterals  are  laid  at  right  angles  to  the 

main        ..........  79 

27.  A  combination  of  the  systems  shown  in  Figs.  24  and  25         .  80 

28.  A  system  which  has  been  in  operation  for  a  number  of  years  81 

29.  A  system  which  has  been  developed  solely  by  the  require- 

ments of  the  field 82 

30.  Showing  the  way  in  which  the  water  table  is  changed  by  the 

insertion  of  the  tile  midway  between  two  others     .         .       84 

31.  Showing  how  water  approaches  the  tile,  when  the  tiles  are 

laid  in  a  rather  heavy  soil  underlaid  by  a  more  open 

subsoil     ...         .                 .                 .         .      -  .  85 

32.  Economizing  in  the  size  of  tile        ......  87 

33.  Silt-basin  built  of  brick 90 

34.  Silt-basin  of  concrete  and  sewer  tile       .         .         .        .         .91 

35.  Silt-basin  built  of  concrete     .......  92 

36.  Drainage  level v  /    .  95 

37.  Cheaper  forms  of  drainage  or  grade  levels     .         ....  96 

38.  Leveling  rods .         .  97 

39.  Drainage  engineer's  leveling  rod    ....        ..   >    .  98 

40.  Target 98 

41.  Illustrating  how  a  carpenter's  level  may  be  mounted  on  a 

stand  and  used  for  leveling      ...       .        .    ,     .         .     105 

42.  Illustrating  the  water  level  in  use  .        .        .        .  .     106 

43.  Closer  view  of  water  level  and  carpenter's  level     .        .        .107 

44.  Relation  of  the  angle  of  approach  to  the  distance  between 

drains      ...        ,.     . 112 

45.  Profile  of  a  portion  of  field  through  which  a  tile  drain  is  to 

be  laid     .       .,        .'       . 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

FIGURE  PAGE 

46.  Profile  of  a  portion  of  field  with  stakes  in  place     .         .        .119 

47.  Profile  of  a  portion  of  field  with  levels  in  place      .         .         .121 

48.  Diagram  to  determine  fall  and  depth  of  ditch         .         .         .  125 

49.  Diagram  drawn  on  common  note  paper  to  determine  fall  and 

depth  of  ditch .  127 

60.    Same  as  Fig.  46  with  grade  bars  and  ditch  shown          .         .  132 

51.  Ditching  tools .135 

52.  Tile  hook 135 

53.  Nailing  a  grade  bar  in  place 137 

54.  Showing  line  of  grade  bars  in  place  ready  for  digging  to  begin  138 

55.  Showing  steps  in  digging  and  finishing  ditch          .         .         .  139 

56.  End  section  of  ditch,  showing  in  diagram  the  bottom  of 

ditch  formed  to  receive  the  tile 141 

57.  Showing  the  way  in  which  bolts  may  be  imbedded  in  the 

concrete  or  other  outlet  protection  by  which  strips  of 
wood  may  be  bolted  in  place  to  carry  screen  to  protect 

mouth  of  outlet  from  vermin,  etc.   .....  144 

58.  Showing  a  galvanized  iron  trap  suspended  by  hinge  to  pro- 

tect the  mouth  of  the  outlet  from  entrance  of  vermin     .  146 

59.  Five-inch  tile   with  small  opening,  and  hammer  used   in 

making  the  opening         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  147 

60.  Five-inch  tile  shown  in  Fig.  59,  with  the  opening  enlarged 

to  receive  3-inch  tile        , 148 

61.  Shows  the  connection  when  the  3-inch  tile  is  fitted  in  place  .  149 

62.  A  top  connection  in  cross  section  .         .         .        .         .         .150 

63.  Sections  of  tile,  showing  also  T  and  angle      ....  160 

64.  The  way  of  constructing  well  for  drainage  downward  into 

underlying  gravel 150 

65.  Plan  for  removing  drainage  water  by  means  of  a  stone  filled 

well  and  tile 154 

66.  Steel  shield  used  to  hold  back  quicksand        ....  165 

67.  Plan  for  permitting  excess  of  surface  water  to  reach  tile 

drain  by  filling  a  section  of  ditch  with  crushed  stone 

or  cobble  stone         ........  158 

68.  Plan  for  removing  water  by  way  of  silt-basin  and  tile  system  159 

69.  Hose-level 165 

70.  Ends  of  hose-level  showing  the  way  in  which  the  height  of 

the  column  should,  be  read 166 

71.  Leveling  rods  used  with  the  hose-level  .         .        »',"".•*        '  17° 


xviii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGUKB  PAGE 

72.  Detailed  drawing  of  the  zero  section  of  leveling  rods     .        .  171 

73.  Hose-level  in  use .        .174 

74.  Nearer  view  of  the  hose-level  in  use       .        .        .        .    ,     .  175 

75.  Profile  of  field  to  be  drained 181 

76.  Profile  of  field  with  long  stakes  and  datum  plane  shown        .  182 

77.  Soil  underlaid  by  clay  or  hard-pan         .         .         .        .         .  188 

78.  Soil  on  slope  underlaid  by  hard-pan 189 

79.  Heavy  clay  soil 189 

80.  Depression  in  heavy  clay  on  hill  slope 190 

81.  Depression  of  soil  underlaid  by  heavy  clay  on  hill  slope        .  190 

82.  Limited  flat  area  of  heavy  clay  on  hill  top     ....  191 

83.  Limited  area  of  soil  underlaid  by  heavy  clay  on  hill  top        .  191 

84.  Springy  low  flat  area  due  to  underlying  heavy  clay  or  hard- 

pan  192 

86.    Springy  low  flat  area  due  to  water  rising  through  clay  or 

hard-pan 192 

86.  Showing  a  method  for  draining  single  spring         .         .         .  193 

87.  Springy  area  on  slope     ........  194 

88.  Springy  area  on  slope  supplied  with  water  from  rock  forma- 

tion            194 

89.  Small  muck  area  without  natural  outlet         ....  195 

90.  Shallow  pond  resting  on  muck  area 197 

91.  Threaded  section  of  brass  tubing  for  studying  distribution 

of  water  in  soil  columns  .......  226 

92.  Apparatus  for  studying  shrinkage  of  soils      ....  235 

93.  Apparatus  for  studying  movement  of   water  through   tile 

walls,  position  of  water-table  in  tiled  soils,  the  influence 
of  an  inch  of  rainfall  upon  the  height  of  ground  water- 
table,  and  the  percentage  of  pore-space  in  soil  .  .  238 

94.  Detail  of  part  of  Fig.  93          .        .         .         ...        .239 

95.  Detail  of  part  of  Fig.  93         .        .        .        ...        .  241 


LIST   OF   TABLES 


I.     Plant-food  Elements 3 

II.     Range  of  Temperatures  at  which  Seeds  have  been  Found 

to  Germinate 7 

III.  Days  Required  for  Radicle  to  Appear  when  Seeds  are 

Planted  and  Kept  at  the  Temperatures  Indicated      .  7 

IV.  Soil  and  Air  Temperatures        ......  13 

V.     Crop  Needs  for  Water 24 

VI.     Relation  of  Size  of  Tile  and  Fall  to  Capacity  to  Convey 

Water 86 

VII.  Number  of  Acres  from  which  One-fourth  Inch  of  Water 
will  be  Removed  in  Twenty-four  Hours  by  Outlet 
Tile  Drains  of  Different  Diameters  and  Different 

Lengths  with  Different  Grades 89 

VIII.     Form  for  Leveling  Notes 102 

IX.     Form  for  Leveling  Notes 103 

X.     Form  for  Leveling  Notes  .......     105 

XI.     Relation  of  Angle  of  Approach  to  Main  to  Distance  be- 
tween Laterals,  when  Laterals  Enter  Main  100  Feet 
Apart          .        .        .         ...        .         .         .111 

XII.     Form  for  Field  Notes        .        .        .        .        .        .        .117 

XIII.  Form  for  Field  Notes  with  Distances,  Back-sights  and 

Fore-sights  Introduced  with  Cheaper  Levels      .        .     120 

XIV.  Form  for  Field  Notes  with  Distances,  Back-sights  and 

Fore-sights,  Height  of  Instrument  and  One  Elevation 

Introduced          ...         .        .        .        .        .  122 

XV.     Same  as  Table  XIII  with  Elevations  Introduced      »        .  124 

XVI.     Same  as  Table  XIII  with  Computations  Completed  .        .  130 


XX  LIST  OF  TABLES 

TABLE  PAGE 

XVII.     Approximate  Cost  to  a  Rod  of  Digging  Ditch,  Laying 

Tile  and  Blinding 162 

XVIII.     Readings  in  Inches,  Eighths  and  Sixteenths  Transposed 

to  Decimals  of  a  Foot      .         .       -.         .         .         .  172 

XIX.    Table  for  Hose-level  Data      .        .        ...        .  176 

XX.     Form  for  Field  Notes,  Hose-level  .-..,.        .  179 

XXI.     Data  Completed,  Hose-level  .        .        .        .        .        .  184 


TEXT-BOOK    OF   LAND   DRAINAGE 


LAKD   DRAINAGE 

CHAPTER  I 
CHARACTERISTICS   OF   SOILS 

NEXT  to  the  soil  itself,  water  is  the  most  important 
factor  in  crop  production.  Without  it,  crops  cannot  be 
grown.  Its  abundance  is  desirable,  but  its  control  is 
more  important  than  its  abundance.  Its  control  is  impor- 
tant not  only  because  of  the  immediate  functions  of  the 
water,  but  because  also  of  the  degree  to  which  its  presence 
or  absence  may  affect  other  factors  essential  in  crop  pro- 
duction. A  brief  study  of  these  relations  is  essential  to 
an  understanding  of  the  subject  before  us. 

1.  Chemical  and  physical  composition  of  soils.  —  A 
soil  of  good  chemical  composition  is  one  in  which  all  of 
the  food  elements  which  crops  obtain  directly  from  the 
soil  are  found  in  abundance. 

A  soil  of  good  physical  composition  is  one  in  which 
organic  matter  (chiefly  vegetable  materials)  and  the 
various  kinds  of  mineral  matter  —  sands,  silt,  and  clay 
—  exist  in  desirable  proportions. 

A  soil  lacking  in  chemical  and  physical  composition 
cannot  normally  produce  a  good  crop.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  does  not  follow  .that  fit  chemical  and  physical  compo- 
B  1 


;  -1  -^o1; «,*•>«*  •;•'•>. a 

v3^:??3-:-?*fi  ?•-?« « ? 

2  LAND  DRAINAGE 

sition  of  a  soil  will  insure  a  crop.  A  soil  may  be  of  good 
character  in  these  respects  and  yet  fail  absolutely  to  pro- 
duce a  good  return. 

2.  Physical  condition  of  soil.  —  The  physical  condition 
of  any  soil  bears  a  profound  relation  to  its  ability  to  pro- 
duce a  crop.     It  is  undoubtedly  safe  to  assert  that  soils 
more  frequently  fail  to  produce  large  or  even  satisfactory 
yields  because  of  improper  physical  condition,  than  be- 
cause   of    improper    chemical    or    physical    composition. 
The  physical  conditions  of  soil  upon  which  plant  growth 
most  largely  depends  are :    proper  temperature ;    proper 
ventilation ;  proper  structure,  or  tilth ;  proper  moisture. 

TEMPERATURE 

There  are  three  lines  of  activity  within  the  soil  having 
to  do  with  the  welfare  of  the  crop :  (1)  food  prepara- 
tion, (2)  germination,  (3)  root  activity ;  to  which  may  be 
added  (4)  recuperation. 

3.  Food  requirements  of  plants.  —  The  chief  food  ele- 
ments required  by  plants  are :    carbon,  oxygen,  hydro- 
gen, nitrogen,  potassium,  phosphorus,  calcium,  magnesium, 
sulfur,  chlorine,  and  iron.     Each  of  these  is  always  com- 
bined with  one  or  more  other  elements  before  plants  can 
use  it  for  food.     The  carbon  is  combined  with  oxygen, 
forming  carbon  dioxide;    the  calcium  is  combined    with 
carbon   and   oxygen,   forming   calcium   carbonate 1 ;   the 
nitrogen  is  combined  first  with  hydrogen  and  oxygen, 
forming  nitric  acid   (HNO3),   and  then  exchanging  the 
hydrogen  for  some  other  element,  such   as  calcium  or 
potassium,  to  form  calcium  nitrate  (Ca(NO3)2),  or  potas- 
sium nitrate  (KNO3). 

1  Probably  changed  to  nitrates  before  reaching  the  plant. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  SOILS 


TABLE   I 


PLANT-FOOD 

ELEMENT 

SYMBOL 

FORM  IN  WHICH  WE  ABE 
MOST  LIKELY  TO 

THINK   OF   IT 

FORMULA 

Carbon  . 

c 

Carbon  dioxide 

C02 

Oxygen  .     .     . 
Hydrogen   .     . 

o\ 

HJ 

Water 

H2O 

Nitrogen 

N 

Nitrates 

Ca(N03)2-KN03 

Potassium  .     . 

K 

Potash 

K2O 

Phosphorus 

P 

Phosphoric  acid 

P205 

Calcium      .     . 

Ca 

Lime 

CaO 

Magnesium 

Mg 

Magnesia 

MgO 

Sulfur     .     .     . 

S 

Sulfuric  acid 

H2S04 

Chlorine      .     . 

Cl 

Common  salt 

NaCl 

Iron  .... 

Fe 

Iron  oxide 

Fe203 

The  plant  secures  its  carbon  as  carbon  dioxide,  which  is 
a  gas,  from  the  air  through  its  leaves. 

All  other  foods  the  plant  secures  from  the  soil  through 
its  roots.  (Fig.  1.) 

4.  Temperature  and  food  preparation.  —  The  wise 
farmer  begins  the  preparation  of  a  field  some  time,  if 
possible,  before  he  expects  to  plant  the  crop.  He  has 
learned  that  with  a  reasonable  period  given  to  such  prepa- 
ration, the  crop  responds  more  quickly  after  planting, 
grows  better  and  yields  better,  than  if  the  period  of  prep- 
aration is  shortened.  One  of  the  reasons  for  this  better 
behavior  of  the  crop  is  that  the  period  of  preparation  makes 
it  possible,  under  normal  conditions,  to  develop  and  store 
in  the  soil  an  abundant  supply  of  available  plant-food 
prior  to  the  time  of  planting.  Plants  resemble  animals 
in  some  of  their  food  demands.  They  need  a  proper 
supply  of  food  in  the  earlier  days  of  their  existence. 
Like  animals,  they  are  likely  to  show,  during  the  remainder 


4  LAND  DRAINAGE 

of  their  lives,  the  effect  of  an  abundance  or  a  shortage  of 
food  in  these  earlier  days. 

5.   Chemical  and  physical  activities.  —  All  the  mineral 
plant-food  elements  are  found  in  all  normal  soils,  and  are 


FIG.  1.  —  Drawing  to  show  how  the  plant  receives  its  several  food 
elements.     Each  is  always  combined  with  one  or  more  others. 

taken  by  the  plant  from  the  soil  through  its  roots.  Each 
element  exists  as  a  chemical  component  of  some  one  or 
more  of  the  mineral 1  parts  of  the  soil.  Before  they  can 

1  "The  few  elements  which  exist  free  as  constituents  of  rock, 
together  with  many  definite  compounds  of  elements  which 
naturally  take  the  solid  form,  are  minerals."  —  BLACKWELDER 
AND  BARROWS. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  SOILS  5 

be  used  by  the  plants,  these  food  elements  must  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  mineral  particles  and  be  dissolved  in  the 
soil  water.  Whether  these  changes  are  chemical  or 
physical,  they  take  place  more  readily  and  more  rapidly 
under  high  than  under  low  soil  temperatures. 

6.  Biological  activities.  —  The  plant  secures  its  nitro- 
gen supply  from  the  soil  also,  and  appropriates  it  by  way 
of  its  roots.     The  greater  part  of  this  nitrogen  supply 
must  be  in  the  form  of  nitric  acid,  usually  after  the  acid 
has  combined  with  some  mineral  element,  such  as  calcium 
or  potassium,  thus  forming  what  is  called  a  nitrate.     The 
greater  part  of  the  nitrogen  supply  in  the  soil  is  in  some 
form   other   than   nitric   acid   or   nitrate.     It   is   chiefly 
locked  up  in  the  organic  matter;    or  it  is  found  as  free 
nitrogen  in  the  air  in  the  soil.1     There  is  some  ammonia 
and  some  nitrous  acid  in  the  soil,  and  these  are  nitrogen 
compounds. 

7.  Nitrogen    preparation.  —  Before    the    nitrogen    of 
the  organic  matter  in  the  soil  can  be  used  for  food  by  grow- 
ing crops,  it  must  enter  into  new  combinations  with  other 
elements.     The  greater  part  of  the  nitrogen,  by  a  series 
of  changes,  is  finally  combined  with  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
to  form  nitric  acid  (HNO3),  which  in  turn  combines  with 
some  base  to  form  a  salt.     It  is  in  this  form  chiefly  that 
nitrogen  is  used  for  food  by  plants.2 


1  Air  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  gases,  of  which  mixture 
oxygen  constitutes  23.22  %,  nitrogen  75.55  %,  and  carbon  dioxide 
.045%-.06%  by  weight.  —  HILGARD,  Soils,  p.  16. 

2  Recent  investigation  indicates  that  plants  use,  to  some  extent 
at  least,  other  forms  of  nitrogen  than  nitric  and  ammonia  nitro- 
gen.    See  article  of  H.  B.  Hutchinson  and  N.  H.  Miller  of  the 
Rothamstedt  Experiment  Station,  which  appears  in  the  Journal 
of  Agricultural  Science,  Vol.  3,  part  2,  1909.     See  also  Bulletin  87, 
Bureau  of  Soils,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 


6  LAND  DRAINAGE 

8.  Temperature   and   nitrification.  —  All   the   changes 
by  which  organic  nitrogen  is  put  into  form  for  use  by 
plants  are  accomplished  chiefly  by  bacteria.     It  has  been 
found,  according  to  Schloessing  and  Miintz   and   other 
authorities,  that  these  changes  proceed  very  slowly  when 
the   temperature  of  the  soil  is  not  higher  than  54°  F. 
They  proceed  most  rapidly  when  the  soil  temperature  is 
near  98°  F.     Recent  research  seems  to  indicate  an  opti- 
mum temperature  as  low  as  85°  F. 

9.  Nitrogen    fixation.  —  On   the    roots    of    all    legu- 
minous plants,  under  normal  conditions,  are  found  colonies 
of  another  class  of  life  forms,  usually  spoken  of  as  bac- 
teria, which  possess  the  power  to  appropriate  the  free 
nitrogen  of  the  soil  air  and  combine  it  with  hydrogen  and 
oxygen  to  produce  a  form  of  nitrogen  which  the  host 
plant  can  and  does  use  for  food.     These  forms  are  called 
nitrogen-fixers,  and  the  process  is  sometimes  called  nitro- 
gen fixation.     They  work  most  rapidly  when  the  soil  tem- 
perature ranges  from  90°  to  100°.      These  bacteria  are  in 
enlargements  of  tissue  known  as  nodules. 

There  are  probably  other  forms  of  bacteria  and  some 
forms  of  molds  in  soils  that  have  this  power  of  nitrogen 
fixation,  and  their  rate  of  work  is  greatly  affected  by 
temperature  conditions. 

10.  Temperature  and  germination.  —  Most  crops  are 
grown  from  seed.     There  is  a  temperature  below  which 
seeds  will  not  germinate.     There  is  also,  for  each  kind  of 
seed,   a  temperature   at  which  it  will   germinate   most 
quickly.     In  Table  II  are  shown  some  of  the  findings  of 
Sachs  and  Van  Tiegham  regarding  the  lowest,  highest, 
and  best  temperatures  for  the  germination  of  the  seeds 
indicated.     See  also  Table  III. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  SOILS 


TABLE    II 

RANGE  OF  TEMPERATURES  AT  WHICH  SEEDS  HAVE  BEEN  FOUND 
TO  GERMINATE 


LOWEST  TEMPERATURE 

TEMPERATURE  AT 

TEMPERATURE 

KIND  OP  SEED 

AT    WHICH   THE    SEED 

WAS  FOUND  TO 

WHICH  THE  SEED 
GERMINATED 

ABOVE  WHICH 
SEEDS  WOULD 

GERMINATE 

MOST  QUICKLY 

NOT  GERMINATE 

Wheat       .     .     . 

41°  F. 

81°  F. 

104°  F. 

Barley       . 

41° 

83° 

104° 

Peas     .     .    v    . 

44£° 

84° 

102° 

Maize      •  . 

48° 

93° 

115° 

Squash      . 

54° 

115° 

Red  clover    .     , 

42°  Van  Tiegham 

70° 

TABLE    III 

DAYS   REQUIRED   FOR   RADICLE  TO  APPEAR  WHEN  SEEDS  ARE 
PLANTED  AND  KEPT  AT  THE  TEMPERATURES  INDICATED  l 


DAYS  AT  TEMPERATURES  INDICATED 


40°  F. 

51°  F. 

60°  F. 

65°  F. 

Barley  and  wheat  .     .     . 
Beans        .     .     .  v  .    ,  . 
Clover  red 

6 

7 
74 

3 

6^ 
3 

2 
4| 
11 

If 
41 
1 

Flax           

8 

41 

2 

2 

111 

31 

3 

Oats                     ... 

7 

31 

21 

2 

Peas     

5 

3 

If 

If 

Pumpkin  

lOf 

4 

Rve 

4 

21 

1 

1 

Sugar  beets   
Timothy 

22 

9 
6i 

3| 
31 

3i 

3 

1  A  part  of  Haberlandt's  findings  as  quoted  in  Warington's 
Physical  Properties  of  Soil,  p.  140. 


8  LAND  DRAINAGE 

The  days  indicated  under  the  several  temperatures, 
and  after  the  seeds,  undoubtedly  indicate  the  time  re- 
quired for  the  radicle  to  burst  through  the  coat  of  the  seed, 
not  the  time  required  for  the  radicle  to  appear  above 
ground.  (See  Fig.  4.) 

More  recent  investigators  assert  that  some  of  these 
seeds  do  germinate  occasionally  at  temperatures  lower 
than  those  indicated  in  the  above  tables.  The  late 
C.  F.  Wheeler  found  that  chess  seed  would  germinate  when 
lying  on  a  cake  of  ice  in  a  refrigerator,  and  send  roots  f 
inch  into  the  ice.  Wheat  and  other  grains  are  not  infre- 
quently sown,  in  the  Northwest,  when  the  soils  are 
thawed  but  six  or  even  four  inches  deep  in  the  spring; 
they  germinate  in  a  short  time,  long  before  the  frost  has 
entirely  disappeared  below  the  seed-bed.  In  such  cases, 
the  seed-bed  possesses  a  temperature  much  above  that 
of  the  frozen  ground  below. 

11.  Desirable  temperature  condition.  —  The  best    and 
most  desirable  temperature  is  one  ranging  from  70°  to 
90°  F.     The  question  that  should  be  uppermost  in  the 
farmer's  mind  is  not  "  at  how  low  temperature  will  seed 
germinate/'  but  rather  "what  means  may  T  employ  to 
bring  the  temperature  of  the  seed-bed  to  most  nearly 
approximate   the   ideal  ? "      In   Fig.    2    are    shown   the 
effects  of  temperature  on  germination.     The  three  j  ars  were 
prepared  alike,  and  each  had  ten  kernels  of  corn,  from  the 
same  ear,  planted  in  it.     The  jars  were  then  placed  one 
in  a  temperature  of  55°  F.,  one  in  a  temperature  of  70°  F., 
and  one  in  a  temperature  of  85°  F.     The  photograph  was 
taken  on  the  eighth  day  from  planting. 

12.  Later  effects.  —  If,   on  the  eighth  day,  the  jars 
shown  in  Fig.  2  were  placed  together,  and  allowed  to  remain 
in  a  temperature  of  75°  to  85°,  most,  probably  all,  of  the 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  SOILS  9 

seeds  in  the  jar  marked  55°  would  germinate.  If  the  seed 
used  in  all  the  jars  were  of  inferior  quality,  undoubtedly 
a  smaller  percentage  of  them  would  germinate  in  jar 
marked  55°,  than  germinated  in  either  of  the  other  jars. 
It  is  more  than  probable  that  in  their  later  growth,  these 
corn  plants  would  never  overtake  the  plants  in  jar  marked 


FIG.  2.  —  Effects  of  temperature  on  germination.  The  jars  have  indi- 
cated upon  their  sides  the  temperatures  —  55°,  70°,  and  85°  respec- 
tively —  at  which  the  jars  were  kept  after  the  corn  was  planted  in 
them.  The  picture  was  taken  8  days  after  planting. 

85°,  and  would  never  show  the  vigor  and  healthfulness 
of  the  plants  in  that  jar.  It  is  also  probable  that  the 
plants  resulting  from  the  germinations  occurring  at  70° 
would  never  fully  overtake  the  plants  resulting  from  the 
germinations  at  85°,  or  show  the  same  vigor. 

13.  A  rare  case.  —  Some  years  ago,  in  southern  Wis- 
consin, a  field  unusually  well  prepared,  in  a  season  of 
very  favorable  temperature  conditions,  was  planted  to 
corn.  In  three  days  the  young  corn  plants  were  above 
ground  sufficiently  to  be  easily  "  rowed  "  diagonally,  as 


10  LAND  DRAINAGE 

well  as  lengthwise  and  crosswise.  A  duplication  of  this 
incident  has  not  been  discovered  in  forty  years  of  observa- 
tion. The  later  behavior  of  the  crop  was  entirely  in 
accord  with  these  early  days  of  its  history  —  a  seemingly 
uninterrupted  growth,  early  crop  maturity,  and  an  abun- 
dant yield.  This  example  illustrates  the  importance  of  a 
good  start,  due  to  many  favorable  conditions. 

14.  Temperature  and  root  action.  —  The  plant  receives 
all  of  its  food,  excepting  carbon,  through  its  roots.     This 
food  can  be  taken  only  after  it  is  dissolved  in  large  quanti- 
ties of  water.     The  plants  on  an  acre  of  oats,  yielding 
50  bushels  of  grain,  would  take  through  their  roots  dur- 
ing their  growth  at  least  700  tons  —  1,400,000  pounds 
of  water.1     This  water  is  required  to  dissolve  the  plant- 
food,  to  assist  it  to  reach  its  place  in  the  plant,  and  gen- 
erally to  assist  in  promoting  the  well-being  of  the  plant. 
The  part  the  roots  play  in  taking  in  this  great  quantity 
of  water  is  involuntary,  excepting  as  they  place  them- 
selves in  position  to  receive  it.     The  process  by  which 
this  soil  water  enters  the  roots  is  called  osmosis ;  that  by 
which  the  foods  in  solution  move  inward  to  be  used  by 
the   plant,   diffusion.      Both   water  and  food   enter   the 
roots  from  the  soil  chiefly,  if  not  entirely,  by  way  of  the 
root-hairs.      It  is  important,  therefore,  that  the  plants 
develop  extensive  and  vigorous  root  systems.      In  all  of 
this,  temperature  becomes  an  important  factor. 

15.  Root  pressure.  —  When  a   soil  is  over-cold,   the 
rate  at  which  water  enters  the  roots  growing  upon  it  may 
be  so  slow  that  the  plants  assume  a  wilted  appearance. 

1  This  is  in  accord  with  the  best  service  of  water  reported  by 
King,  but  is  much  below  that  obtained  under  arid  conditions 
and  under  very  close  control  by  Briggs  and  Shantz,  and  reported 
in  No.  1,  Vol.  Ill,  Journal  of  Agricultural  Research. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  SOILS  11 

Every  one  acquainted  with  crops  will  recall  how  rigid  — 
even  to  tender  crispness  —  are  the  leaves  of  a  corn  plant 
in  the  early  morning,  when  growing  in  warm  moist  soil. 
The  leaves  would  not  be  so  crisp,  and  might  even  appear 
wilted,  if  the  soil  were  too  cold. 

16.  Root   development.  —  As  the  part  of  the   plant 
above  ground  develops  from  the  seedling  to  the  mature 
plant,    its   demands   for   food   and   anchorage   increase; 
since  the  part  of  the  plant  underground  must  furnish 
both,  there  must  be  adequate  development  underground 
also.     Few  realize  how  great  this  development  is.     King, 
in  what  seems  to  be  a  conservative  estimate,1  has  shown 
that  the  roots  of  a  single  healthy  corn  plant,  placed  end 
to  end,  would  amount  in  length  to  not  less  than  one- 
fourth  mile,  and  probably  would  often  much  exceed  this. 
It  is  only  when  the  soil  temperature  is  correct  that  this 
great  development  can  be  most  satisfactorily  made. 

17.  Best  temperature  for  root  action. — The  tempera- 
tures best  suited  to  food  preparation  and  for  germination 
are  also  good  for  root  activity  as  regards  both  growth 
and  feeding.     Hall  gives  83.6°  F.   as  the  optimum  soil 
temperature  for  growth  of  barley  and  wheat,  and  92.6°  F. 
as  the  optimum  for  maize  and  kidney  beans.     He  gives 
93°  F.    as  the  temperature  at  which  maize  roots  made 
their  maximum   growth  —  55  millimeters   in  24  hours.2 
These  temperatures,  with  a  single  exception,  are  higher 
than  the  highest  averages  of  observed  temperatures  shown 
in  Table  IV.     The  exception  is  for  1  inch  deep  in  Ne- 
braska soil. 

18.  Temperature   and   the   rest-period.  —  The   period 
elapsing  between  the  harvesting  of  one  crop  and  the  plant- 

1  King,  The  Soil,  p.  210.  2Hall,  The  Soil,  p.  114. 


12  LAND  DRAINAGE 

ing  of  the  next  is  no  doubt  often  thought  of  as  one  of  rest 
as  synonymous  with  idleness.  It  is  not  often  considered 
as  a  period  of  rest  in  the  sense  of  recuperation,  as  it  should 
be.  After  producing  certain  crops,  and  especially  under 
abnormal  weather  conditions,  the  soil  is  found  to  be  in  a 
very  unsatisfactory  physical  condition,  and  one  in  which 
the  evils  are  cumulative,  or  may  easily  become  so  if  proper 
precautions  are  not  taken.  Who  has  not  seen  the  wheat 
field,  the  oat  field,  and  even  the  bean  field,  so  baked  and 
scorched  as  to  make  it  seemingly  impossible  of  prepara- 
tion for  an  immediate  crop  ?  In  this  condition  of  intensely 
high  temperature  and  dryness,  not  only  are  certain  im- 
portant processes  suspended,  but  undoubtedly  much  of 
the  desirable  microscopic  flora  is  destroyed. 

19.  Actual  temperatures.  —  In  the  humid  part  of  the 
United  States,  soils  under  normal  weather  conditions  are 
seldom,  if  ever,  too  warm  for  the  ordinary  crops.  The 
opposite  is  more  likely  to  be  true,  so  that  when  the  tiller 
has  exercised  his  highest  art  in  soil  management,  the 
temperature  still  ranges  too  low  for  the  best  results  in 
cropping.  In  Table  IV  data  have  been  assembled  to  show 
average  soil  temperatures  for  the  growing  months  as 
gathered  at  rather  widely  distributed  points  and  under 
different  conditions.  Note  the  average  soil  temperature 
for  6  inches  deep  in  parts  1,  2,  3,  and  6  of  the  table. 
Observe  that  in  no  case  does  the  average  reach  the  opti- 
mum for  seed  germination.  This  <Ioes  not  occur  even  at 
1  inch  deep  in  Nebraska,  nor  at  3  inches  deep  in  Geneva. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  these  tem- 
peratures are  expressed  as  monthly  averages.  On  some 
days  the  maximum  temperature  would  much  exceed  the 
average  of  the  month,  and  even  at  6  inches  deep  might 
approach  optimum. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  SOILS 


13 


The  average  air  temperatures  for  Nebraska,  Tubingen 
(Germany) ,  and  Geneva  (Switzerland)  are  lower  than  sur- 
face and  near  surface  temperatures.  The  Michigan  air 
temperatures  were  recorded  by  an  instrument  not  shaded 
from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 


TABLE   IV 


CONDITIONS 

APRIL 

MAY 

JUNE 

JULY 

AUGUST 

SEPT. 

1.    Temperature  averages  for  12  years  at  the  Nebraska  station 


Air  temperatures    .     . 
Soil  at  1  inch 

52.1 
57.5 

61.9 

68.7 

71.0 

78.1 

76.0 
85.1 

74.5 

82.9 

67.6 

73.8 

Soil  at  6  inches       .     . 

53.3 

65.1 

75.7 

81.6 

80.1 

72.0 

Soil  at  12  inches      .     . 

49.3 

60.7 

69.9 

75.7 

75.7 

69.2 

2.    Temperature  averages  for  5  years,  Pennsylvania  station  (Frear) 


Soil  at  6  inches 
Soil  at  12  inches      .     . 

43.08 
42.69 

54.72 
53.83 

66.34 
65.03 

69.75 

68.89 

68.49 
68.66 

61.70 
62.73 

3.    Temperature  averages  for  4  years,  Munich,  Germany 
(Ebermeyer) 


Soil  at  5.9  inches 
Soil  at  11.8  inches 

44.65 
44.31 

56.79 
57.51 

61.11 

60.06 

67.26 
66.16 

64.09 
63.61 

58.21 

57.88 

4.    Midday  temperature  averages  on  fine  days  for  two  seasons, 
Tubingen,  Germany  (Schiibler) 


Surface  of  soil    . 

121.6 

131.2 

139.8 

146.3 

130.1 

119.8 

Air        

61.7 

67.3 

75.2 

81.3 

68.9 

68.0 

Excess  of  surface  over 

air     

59.9 

63.9 

64.6 

65.0 

61.2 

51.8 

14 


LAND  DRAINAGE 


5.    Geneva  Society  —  Variable  weather  averages  for  one  season, 
Geneva   (Schiibler) 


Surface 

78.9 

80.1 

89.1 

93.4 

960 

828 

Soil  at  3  inches       .     . 

60.7 

64.4 

73.6 

73.3 

76.9 

70.2 

Air  in  shade 

50.1 

55.9 

60.9 

63.2 

65.8 

62.4 

Surface  over  air 

28.8 

24.2 

28.2 

30.2 

30.2 

20.4 

3  inches  deep  over  air 

10.6 

8.5 

12.7 

10.1 

11.1 

7.8 

6.    Temperature  averages  for  one  season,  Mich.  Exp.  Station 
(Bouyoucos) 


Loam  soil  6  inches 
Loam  soil  12  inches     . 

39.16 
37.47 

55.07 
53.02 

66.28 
63.88 

72.40 
70.55 

67.82 
67.00 

65.76 

65.82 

Clay  soil  6  inches 
Clay  soil  12  inches 

40.20 
38.44 

56.00 
53.43 

66.51 
63.89 

72.20 
70.15 

68.01 
66.92 

65.56 
65.56 

Peat  soil  6  inches 
Peat  soil  12  inches 

34.04 

35.48 

55.61 
52.00 

67.15 
64.24 

73.30 

68.56 

68.60 
67.22 

66.37 
66.44 

Air  in  sunshine        .     . 

50.22 

62.00 

70.78 

75.77 

72.34 

68.90 

VENTILATION 

Soil  ventilation  does  not  differ  essentially  from  house 
ventilation.  It  involves  the  displacement  of  bad  or  viti- 
ated air  by  pure  air.  There  are  several  reasons  why  a 
soil  should  be  ventilated. 

20.  Ventilation  and  food  preparation.  —  The  breaking 
down  of  the  minerals  of  the  soil  and  the  consequent  libera- 
tion of  contained  plant-foods  are  favored  by  the  presence 
of  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  The  processes  referred  to  in 
paragraphs  7  and  9  by  which  the  nitrogen  is  changed, 
step  by  step,  from  non-usable  to  usable  forms,  can  take 
place  normally  only  when  an  abundant  supply  of  oxygen 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  SOILS  15 

is  present.  The  germs  that  bring  about  these  changes 
cannot  work  without  oxygen.  The  nitrogen-fixation  bac- 
teria must  have  free  nitrogen  to  work  with  and  oxygen 
to  assist  them. 

21.  Prevention  of  food  destruction.  —  Probably  most 
soils  contain  certain  kinds  of  bacteria  that,  while  they 
require  oxygen  for  their  well-being,  are  not  entirely  de- 


FIG.  3.  —  The  effect  of  ventilation  on  germination.  The  air  was 
excluded  from  the  soil  in  right  jar  by  flooding  to  a  depth  of  f  an  inch 
with  water.  Picture  taken  7  days  from  planting.  One  hundred 
per  cent  of  the  kernels  in  left  jar  germinated. 

pendent  upon  air  for  their  oxygen  supply.  In  the  absence 
of  air  oxygen,  they  have  the  power  to  destroy  certain 
chemical  compounds  for  the  oxygen  these  compounds 
contain.  The  nitrates  are  among  the  compounds  they 
can  destroy.  Nitrates,  it  will  be  remembered,  are  the 
forms  of  nitrogen  that  are  most  used  by  growing  crops. 

When  the  air  is  excluded  from  a  soil  containing  nitrates, 
the  germs  attack  the  nitrates  and  remove  the  oxygen 
from  them,  and  by  this  act  render  the  nitrogen  of  the 
nitrates  useless  for  the  crops.  The  rate  at  which  this 


16  LAND  DRAINAGE 

destruction  takes  place  may  be  very  rapid.  The  germs 
have  been  known  to  destroy,  in  two  weeks,  enough  nitrate 
to  produce  a  crop  of  wheat.1  The  process  is  called  de- 
nitrification,  and  the  germs,  denitrifiers. 

22.   Ventilation  and  germination.  —  The  seeds  of  plants 
cannot  germinate  in  the  absence  of  oxygen.     Corn  kept 


FIG.  4.  —  The  effects  of  ventilation  on  germination.  The  plant  at  the 
right  is  taken  from  left  jar,  Fig.  3.  The  two  kernels  in  the  center 
were  taken  from  right  jar,  Fig.  3.  They  show  absolutely  no  indica- 
tions of  germination.  The  kernel  at  the  left  was  taken  from  a  ger- 
minator  after  3  days.  It  shows  the  radicle  making  healthy  growth. 

in  a  completely  water-logged  soil  will  never  germinate. 
If,  before  the  vitality  of  the  kernels  is  destroyed,  the  water 
is  removed  from  the  soil  and  air  permitted  to  come  to  the 
kernels,  they  will  germinate,  but  the  vigor  of  the  resulting 
plant  is  likely  to  be  impaired,  perhaps  seriously  if  the 
germination  has  been  much  delayed.  The  partial  exclu- 
sion of  air  from  seeds  must  retard  germination,  and  often 

1  The  writer  has  found  that  under  water-logged  conditions, 
scarcely  a  trace  of  nitrates  remained  after  72  hours,  where 
originally  large  quantities  existed. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  SOILS 


17 


(See 


seems  to  reduce  the  vitality  of  the  resulting  plants. 
Figs.  3,  4,  5,  and  6.) 

23.  Ventilation  and  root  action.  —  In  the  absence  of 
oxygen,  the  roots  of  common  plants  not  only  cannot  per- 
form their  functions,  but  they  quickly  die.  If  all  the 
roots  die,  the  remainder  of  the  plant  also  dies,  and  if  any 


FIG.  5.  —  Effects  of  ventilation  on  germination.  Same  as  Fig.  3,  11 
days  from  planting ;  4  days  after  the  excess  of  water  had  been  re- 
moved from  right  jar.  Fifty  per  cent  only  of  the  kernels  have 
germinated.  In  the  upper  right  quarter  of  the  cut  is  shown  a  ker- 
nel of  corn  with  the  embryo  exposed. 

considerable  part  of  the  root  system  is  destroyed,  the 
remainder  of  the  plant  must  suffer,  even  if  it  is  not  killed. 
Most  crops  drown  very  quickly,  for  the  same  reason  that 
animals  do.  Mention  was  made  in  paragraph  16  of  the 
great  development  made  by  the  root  system  of  the  corn 
plant.  The  root  systems  of  all  our  crops  are  extensive. 
In  the  absence  of  oxygen,  the  roots  die.  When  the  supply 


18 


LAND  DRAINAGE 


of  oxygen  is  restricted,  the  growth  of  roots  is  retarded 
and  the  crops  suffer. 

24.  Removal  of  objectionable  products.  —  All  growth 
results  in  the  production  of  carbon  dioxide.  Animals 
throw  this  gas  from  their  lungs  into  the  air.  The  roots 


FIG.  6.  —  Effects  of  ventilation  on  germination.  —  Same  as  Fig.  3,  14 
days  from  planting  ;  7  days  after  water  was  removed  from  right  jar. 
Seventy  per  cent  only  of  the  kernels  have  germinated. 

of  plants  and  the  lower  plant  forms  growing  in  the  soil 
produce  carbon  dioxide  (CO2)  and  liberate  it  in  the  soil. 
The  presence  of  carbon  dioxide  (CO2)  interferes  with  the 
life  in  the  soil,  as  does  its  presence  with  animal  life  in  a 
room.  When,  therefore,  there  is  an  unbalanced  condi- 
tion of  air  in  the  soil,  —  too  little  oxygen,  too  much  car- 
bon dioxide,  —  the  balance  must  be  reestablished  before 
plant  life  can  thrive. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  SOILS  19 

SOIL   STRUCTURE 

Soil  texture  has  reference  to  the  sizes  of  the  soil  particles 
and  the  proportions  in  which  the  various  sizes  of  particles 
exist  in  the  soil.  Texture  is  not  greatly  subject  to  modi- 
fication or  control,  and  is  rather  stable. 

Soil  structure  has  reference  to  the  manner  of  arrange- 
ment of  the  soil  particles.  The  particles  in  a  soil  mass 
may  lie  in  very  close  contact  with  each  other.  Under 
some  conditions  the  soil  particles  may  be  cemented  to- 
gether by  certain  salts  existing  in  the  soil.  Except  possi- 
bly in  coarse  soils,  the  former  condition  is  very  undesir- 
able. The  latter  condition  is  undesirable  in  any  soil. 
It  is  best  illustrated  in  puddled  or  "  baked  "  soil,  and  in 
the  hard-pans. 

25.  Ideal  condition  of  structure.  —  When  a  soil  proper 
crumbles  readily  into  a  soft  mass  under  the  pressure  of 
the  hands,  and  readily  becomes  loose  —  mellow  —  from 
the  action  of  tilling  and  stirring  tools,  it  may  be  said  to 
approximate  the  ideal  condition  of  structure,  or  tilth. 

While  the  subsoil  will  seldom  break  down  in  the  same 
way,  it  should  crumble  also,  but  usually  into  somewhat 
larger  masses,  cuboid  in  shape.  This  would  indicate 
that  the  whole  mass  of  the  subsoil,  as  it  lies  in  position, 
is  already  separated  into  these  small  cubes  (cuboids)  by 
a  very  great  number  of  cleavage  planes.  More  will  be 
said  of  these  planes  in  another  paragraph,  (47) . 

26.  Over-mellowness.  —  Some    soils,    and    especially 
those  in  arid  or  semi-arid  climates,  possess  a  structure 
such  that  the  plow  renders  them  over-mellow  for  immedi- 
ate  planting.     Such   soils   must   be   plowed   some   time 
before  planting  the  crops  upon  them,  —  frequently  in  the 
fall  when  the  planting  is  to  be  done  the  following  spring. 


20  LAND  DRAINAGE 

On  such  soils,  except  when  a  sod  is  to  be  turned  down,  the 
disk  harrow  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  plow,  when  the  plant- 
ing must  be  done  at  once.  The  same  discussion  may 
apply  to  very  sandy  soils  also. 

27.  Structure    and   germination.  —  On    clay    soils    or 
heavy  loams,  a  severe  rain,  just  after  the  seed  has  been 
planted,  will  frequently  so  pack  the  soil  that  many  of  the 
seeds  will  fail  to  germinate,  or  the  germination  may  be 
greatly  delayed.     Of  the  seeds  that  germinate,  many  will 
fail  to  thrust  the  parts  out  of  the  ground,  and  many  others 
will  be  greatly  delayed. 

Seeds  planted  in  over-loose  or  in  over-lumpy  soil  may 
fail  to  germinate,  or  may  be  so  delayed  that  at  harvest 
time  some  plants  will  have  ripened  their  seed,  while  others 
will  have  brought  them  only  to  the  milk  stage,  or  even 
to  the  flowering  stage.  (See  Fig.  20.)  Obviously  soil 
structure  plays  an  important  part  in  germination. 

28.  Structure  and  root  development.  —  Mention  has 
already  been  made  of  the  extent  of  the  development  of 
the  root  systems  of  our  domestic  plants,  and  of  the  need 
of  the  plant  for  such  root  development  to  secure  both 
food  and  moisture.     The  tender  tips  of  the  developing 
rootlets  can  penetrate  a  hard  or  compact  soil  but  slowly, 
and,  therefore,  for  but  relatively  short  distances.     The 
root   system   developed   under   such   conditions   will   be 
marked  by  short  roots  and  fewer  of  them.     Therefore 
the  crop  suffers. 

29.  Root  development  restricted  by  fissuring.  —  In  a 
soil  (or  subsoil)  checked  by  large  fissures  or  cracks,  a 
root  may  advance  to  the  fissure  and  grow  out  into  it, 
but  will  find  difficulty  in  making  an  entrance  into  the 
opposite  wall,  especially  if  the  soil  of  the  opposite  wall 
is  hard  as  is  almost  sure  to  be  the  case  where  large  cleavages 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  SOILS  21 

occur.  The  roots  are  more  likely  to  advance  along  the 
fissure,  and  most  of  their  usefulness  to  the  plant  is  thus 
lost. 

30.  Injury  to  roots  by  fissuring.  —  When  fissuring  or 
cracking  occurs  in  soils  or  subsoils  already  filled  with  active 
roots,  all  those  roots  lying  across  the  plane  of  the  fissure 
are  almost  sure  to  be  broken,  and  their  service  beyond 
the    breaks,    and   that  of  all  their  branches  is  lost  to 
the  plants  to  which  they  belong.     Crops,  therefore,  may 
suffer  greatly  from  soil  fissuring. 

WATER 

Water  is  the  great  servant  of  nature.  It  is  also  the 
great  servant  of  agriculture,  and  its  usefulness  is  propor- 
tional to  the  degree  of  its  successful  control.  Its  functions 
are  many. 

31.  Moisture  and  food  preparation.  —  In  the  prepara- 
tion of  food,  water  plays  a  most  important  part.     Few, 
if  any,  chemical  reactions  can  take  place  in  the  absence 
of  moisture.     Moisture,  in  contact  with  the  surface  of 
the  soil  particles,  assists  in  the  actions  resulting  in  the 
liberation  of  the  plant-food  which  the  soil  particles  may 
hold. 

Those  germs,  usually  designated  as  nitrifiers,  whose 
important  function  it  is  to  transform  the  unusable  nitrogen 
of  the  organic  matter  of  the  soil  into  usable  nitrogen,  can- 
not perform  their  work  without  moisture ;  nor  can  they 
grow  and  multiply  without  moisture.  The  forms  engaged 
in  nitrogen  fixation  cannot  work  in  the  absence  of  mois- 
ture. These  are  the  forms  which  we  know  best,  as  they 
are  found  established  on  the  roots  of  the  clovers,  beans, 
alfalfa,  and  other  legumes. 


22  LAND  DRAINAGE 

A  soil  constantly  deficient  in  moisture  is  almost  sure 
to  be  deficient  in  all  these  useful  nitrogen  preparers,  as 
well  as  one  which  is  over  supplied  with  water. 

32.  Moisture  and  germination.  —  Water  plays  a  very 
important  and  interesting  part  in  germination.     Seeds 
would  lie  indefinitely  in  a  dry  soil  without  germinating; 
but  where  there  is  proper  moisture,  and  correct  condi- 
tions of  temperature  and  ventilation,  the  water  makes  its 
way  through  the  seed-coat  and  causes  the  seed  to  swell 
till  it  bursts  its  coat.     At  the  same  time  the  presence  of 
the  water  in  the  seed  promotes  certain  changes  by  which 
the  food  stored  in  the  seed  is  made  ready  for  the  use  of 
the    young  plant   (more    correctly  called   a  plantlet    or 
embryo).     (See  Fig.  5.)     It  uses  the  food,  begins  to  grow 
out  through  the  ruptured  coat,  and  is  soon  established 
in  the  soil.     By  the  time,  or  even  before,  it  has  used  up 
the  supply  of  food  stored  for  it  in  the  seed,  it  is  ready  to 
use  the  food  supply  provided  in  the  soil. 

33.  Water    the    solvent    and    carrier.  —  Before    the 
young  plant  can  use  the  foods  stored  for  it  in  the  seed  or 
in  the  soil,  the  food  must  first  be  prepared  and  then 
dissolved  in  the  soil  water.     The  water  thus  becomes  the 
carrier  of  the  foods.     The  food-laden  water  may  move 
considerable  distances  through  the  soil  to  the  roots.     On 
the  other  hand,  when  the  soil  is  in  proper  physical  condi- 
tion, the  roots  develop  remarkably,  as  was  indicated  in 
paragraph  16.     They  reach  out  considerable  distances, 
and    at    the    same    time    their    branches    become    very 
numerous,1  so  that  there  is  not  a  cubic  inch  of  soil  for 
some  feet  from  the  plant  that  is  not  penetrated  or  trav- 
ersed by  at  least  one  root  —  more  usually  by  several. 

1  There  are  few  of  our  common  crops  that  fail  to  produce  roots 
as  much  as  three  feet  in  length,  and  some  exceed  ten  feet. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  SOILS  23 

Only  a  brief  outline  can  be  given,  in  this  discussion,  of 
the  way  in  which  this  feeding  process  takes  place.  This 
general  statement  is  sufficient  to  indicate  the  general 
part  that  water  plays  in  the  work. 

34.  Service  of  water  within  the  plant.  —  Within  the 
plant,  the  water  continues  to  be  the  carrier  of  the  food. 
It  delivers  its  load  to  the  leaves.     There  the  food  is 
elaborated  and  much  of  the  water  is  dismissed  into  the 
air  by  way  of  openings  in  the  leaf  walls.     Some  of  the 
water  is  still  retained,  a  part  of  it  to  be  used  by.  the  plant 
as  food,  and  the  remainder  to  continue  its  service  as 
carrier ;   but  its  burden  now  is  elaborated  food,  and  its 
function  is  to  distribute  this  food  to  the  parts  requiring  it 
for  growth  or  storage.     Some  of  it  is  carried  to  the  stems, 
some  to  the  leaves,  some  to  the  maturing  seeds,  and  some 
even  to  the  extreme  ends  of  the  roots. 

35.  Quantities  of  water  required  by  crops.  —  Most  of 
the  plant-foods  are  only  slightly  soluble  in  water ;  that  is, 
a  large  quantity  of  water  is  required  to  dissolve  a  small 
quantity  of  food.     Storer  states  that,  in  ordinary  soils, 
a  thousand  pounds  of  water  can  dissolve  from  one  half 
to  one  and  one  half  pounds  of  mixed  organic  and  mineral 
matters.1     For  this  and  other  reasons,  large  quantities  of 
water  are  required  to  produce  a  good  crop  yield.     When 
the  water  supply  is  short,  the  crop  yields  are  necessarily 
lowered.     Table  V  is  a  modification  from  King  and  has 
been  prepared  chiefly  to  show  the  least  possible  amount 
of  water  that  may  be  expected  to  produce  the  yields 
indicated  in  the  first  column  of  the  table.     The  required 
amounts  are  expressed  both  in  tons  and  in  inches  of 
rainfall.     These  amounts  include  the  losses  by  evapora- 
tion from  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  the  growing  season, 

1  Storer,  Agriculture,  Vol.  I,  p.  285. 


24 


LAND  DRAINAGE 


which  must  be  kept  at  a  minimum.     Few  farmers,  how- 
ever, obtain  this  service  from  water. 

TABLE   V 


CROP  AND  YIELD  TO  THE  ACRE 

ACRE-INCHES 

TONS  OP 
WATER 

LARGEST 
POSSIBLE 
YIELD  FROM 
8  INCHES 
RAINFALL 

20  bu.  wheat  .  .  .  . 
35  bu.  wheat  .... 
40  bu  oats  .... 

6.0 
10.5 
627 

680.0 

1190.0 
710  6 

26.66 
51  02 

10.19 

1154.0 

30  bu.  barley  .... 
45  bu.  barley  .... 
40  bu  corn. 

6.42 
9.63 
672 

727.4 
1091.40 
761  5 

37.38 
47  62 

65  bu  corn  .... 

1092 

1237  00 

100  bu.  potatoes     . 
300  bu.  potatoes     ...     . 

2.07 
6.2 

234.62 
702.60 

386.47 

In  the  fourth  column  of  the  table  are  shown  the  yields 
of  the  several  crops  that  should  be  obtained  from  eight 
inches  of  rainfall  under  the  same  conditions  of  efficiency. 

36.  Conditions  of  water.  —  Water  may  exist  in  the 
soil  in  any  one  of  three  conditions;    as  gravitational, 
as  capillary,  and  as  hygroscopic  water. 

37.  Gravitational  water.  —  That    water    in    the    soil 
which,  if  opportunity  be  given  it,  will  flow  downward 
or  away  through  the  soil  because  of  its  own  weight,  is 
gravitational   water.     Its   tendency   is   to   flow   directly 
downward.     Obstructions    and    restrictions    of    various 
kinds  will  turn  it  out  of  its  course  and  cause  it  to  flow 
in  other  directions  —  even  upward,  as  is  seen  in  a  boiling 
spring  (the  stream  of  water  rising  out  of  the  ground  - 
not  from  heat).     Water  which  in  the  soil  would  be  grav- 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  SOILS  25 

itational  water  is  surface  water  before  it  enters  the  soil. 
Surface  water  is  that  which  stands  upon  or  moves  off 
over  the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  must  very  often  be 
taken  into  account  in  planning  a  system  of  drainage. 

38.  Capillary  water.  —  The  water  that  remains  cling- 
ing to  the  walls  of  the  soil  particles  with  sufficient  force 
to  withstand  the  pull  of  its  own  weight  is  €apillary  water. 
It  is  often  defined  as  the  water  that  remains  clinging  to 
the  walls  of  the  soil  particles  after  all  gravitational  water 
has  moved  away.     It  covers  the  walls  in  very  thin  layers. 
Just  as  the  outer  molecules  of  the  water  of  a  dew-drop 
hold  the  mass  in  a  spherical  shape,  so  the  outer  molecules 
of  the  capillary  water  covering  the  soil  grains  hold  the 
water  about  the  grains. 

39.  Hygroscopic  water.  —  The  water  that  is  found  in 
soil  after  it  becomes  air-dry  is  hygroscopic  water.     The 
amount  of  hygroscopic  water  in  a  given  weight  of  soil 
usually  depends  upon  three  things,  viz.  the  fineness  of 
the  soil  particles,  the  temperature  of  the  soil,  and  the 
humidity  of  the  air  in  contact  with  the  soil  particles. 
The  amount  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil  becomes  a  fourth 
factor  if  it  is  not  included  in  the  first  named.     The  humid- 
ity of  the  air  may  be  roughly  defined  as  the  readiness 
with  which  it  gives   up  its  moisture.     Some  days  the 
pitcher  and  the  pump-spout  "  sweat  " ;    some  days  they 
do  not,  depending  upon  the  humidity  of  the  air  and  the 
temperature  of  pitcher  and  spout. 

The  dust  that  rises  from  the  road  on  a  hot,  sunshiny 
July  day  at  noon,  dry  as  it  may  appear,  carries  a  measur- 
able amount  of  hygroscopic  moisture. 

Opinions  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  value  of  hygroscopic 
water  in  agriculture.  It  is  probable  that  its  presence 
results  only  in  good. 


26  LAND  DRAINAGE 

40.  Movements    of   soil   water.  —  Mention  has    been 
made  of  three  conditions  in  which  water  may  exist  in  the 
soil.     There   are   three  movements  of  soil  water  —  one 
each  for  these  three  conditions.     Movements  of  gravita- 
tional water  are  known  as  gravitational  movements ;  those 
of  capillary  water,  as  capillary  movements;  while  move- 
ments of  hygroscopic  water  are  known  as  thermal  move- 
ments.    These  movements   are  very  distinct  as  regards 
their  causes,  characteristics,  and  agricultural  importance. 
For  the   present,    gravitational    movements    have    been 
sufficiently  discussed  in  paragraph  (37). 

41.  Capillary    movements.  —  Agriculturally,    capillary 
water  is  preeminent.     Its  control,  Which  is  very  desirable, 
is  accomplished  largely  through  the  control  of  its  move- 
ments, and  this  control  depends  largely  upon  a  knowledge 
of  their  causes  and  character  and  the  factors  modifying 
them.     Movements  of  capillary  soil  water  are  due  chiefly 
to  surface  tension,  and  entirely  so  after  the  soil  particles 
are  invested  by  capillary  water. 

42.  Surface  tension.  —  When  the  rubber  membrane  of 
a  toy  balloon  is  inflated  with  gas,  it  assumes  a  spherical 
form,  due  to  the  pull  of  the  membrane  in  its  effort  to 
contract.     This  lessens  the  volume  of  the  gas,  and  be- 
cause the  pull  is  uniform,  the  balloon  assumes  a  spherical 
form.     (If    some    part    of   the    rubber   membrane   were 
weaker  or  stronger  than  the  rest,  the  form  of  the  balloon 
would  not  be  exactly  spherical.)     If  a  part  of  the  inclosed 
gas  were  permitted  to  escape,  the  volume  of  the  balloon 
would  be  reduced,  but  its  form  would  not  be  changed. 

The  dew-drop,  suspended  from  the  blade  of  grass,  does 
not  go  to  pieces  for  the  reason  that  the  molecules  of 
water  covering  the  surface  of  the  mass  act  in  much  the 
same  way  as  the  rubber  membrane  of  the  toy  balloon. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  SOILS 


27 


If  the  dew-drop  could  be  caused  to  stand  in  space,  and 
freed  from  the  pull  of  gravity,  it  would  assume  a  perfectly 
spherical  form.  If  any  part  of  the  water  of  the  dew-drop 
could  be  removed,  its  size  would  be  reduced,  but  its  form 
would  at  once  become  spherical  again,  because  of  the  pull 


w 


FIG.  7.  —  A  mass  of  soil  particles  surrounded  by  capillary  film,  shown  in 
section.  GG  represents  the  ground  line  ;  S,  soil  particles  in  section  ; 
W,  water  film  ;  A ,  the  air  spaces  surrounded  by  capillary  films  which 
in  turn  also  surround  the  soil  particles. 

of  the  surface  molecules.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  dew- 
drop  is  not  spherical  as  it  hangs  to  the  blade  of  grass. 
It  is  symmetrical,  and  its  free  surfaces  are  curved ;  the  re- 
moval or  the  addition  of  water  does  not  change  these  facts. 
Its  new  form  will  be  symmetrical  and  its  free  surfaces 
curved,  all  due  to  the  pull  of  the  surface  molecules. 

When  soil  particles,   or  masses  of  soil  particles,  are 
invested  with  capillary  water,  the  surfaces  of  the  water 


28  LAND   DRAINAGE 

are   always   symmetrical,   and   are   always   exercising   a 
compressing  stress  as  they  do  in  the  dew-drop. 

43.  Direction  of  capillary  movement.  —  If,  therefore, 
capillary  water  is  removed  at  some  point  in  or  on  a  soil 
mass,  this  compressing  stress  causes  the  remaining  water 
to  readjust  itself  so  that  the  proportions  of  the  thickness 
of  water  layer  and  the  symmetry  of  the  surfaces  are  the 
same  as  before  the  water  was  disturbed.     (See  Fig.  7.) 
In  this  readjustment  of  capillary  water,  the  movement 
is  along  the  surfaces  of  the  soil  particles  and  is  always 
toward  the  point  where  the  water   has   been   removed, 
regardless  of  direction.     If  water  is  added  at  any  point, 
a  readjustment  will  take  place  and  the  movement  will 
be  away  from  that  point,  and  out  through  the  mass. 

44.  Hygroscopic  movements.  —  These  movements  of 
water  are   called   thermal  movements,   because  heat  is 
the  chief  factor  involved  in  them.     They  take  place  from 
the  surface  of  the  soil  particles  into  the  surrounding  air, 
or  from  the  surrounding  air  to  the  surface  of  the  soil 
particle. 


CHAPTER  II 
PHYSICAL   INTER-RELATIONS    IN  SOILS 

A  VERY  intimate  relation  exists  between  each  of  the 
four  fundamental  physical  soil  conditions  and  all  the 
others,  and  between  gravitational  water  and  all  four  con- 
ditions. So  important  are  these  relations  that  they  should 
be  very  thoroughly  understood.  A  brief  description  of 
them  follows  in  the  order  of  sequence  as  they  appear  to 
the  writer. 

INFLUENCE    OF    CAPILLARY    WATER    ON    OTHER    PHYSICAL 
CONDITIONS 

45.  Capillary  water  and  soil  structure.  —  The  physical 
structure  of  a  cultivated  soil  depends  on  four  things,  — 
the  method  of  cropping,  the  organic  matter  present,  the 
use  of  tools  on  the  soil,  and  the  moisture  content  through- 
out the  year.     This  discussion  permits  the  consideration 
of  but  one  of  these  four  categories,  and  but  one  phase  of 
this  —  the  function  of  capillary  water. 

46.  Capillary  water  and  plowing.  —  One  of  the  uses  of 
the  plow  is  to  mellow  the  soil.     If  a  clay  or  a  loam  soil 
is  plowed  when  over-wet,  the  earth  is  puddled  or  packed  by 
the  pressure  of  the  mold-board  upon  it.     The  effect  is 
much  the  same  as  if  an  over-wet  piece  of  the  same  soil 
were  squeezed  in  one's  hand,  or  were  rolled  between  the 
two  hands.     In  either  case,  the  soil  so  puddled  is  com- 

29 


30 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


pacted  and  dries  more  quickly  than  the  unpuddled  soil. 
In  the  field  this  puddling  interferes  (1)  with  the  further 


ft 


FIG.  8.  —  A  mass  of  sandy  loam  formed  under  pressure  of  the  hand 
and  held  in  shape  by  capillary  moisture.  The  capillary  condition  is 
ideal,  as  is  proved  in  Fig.  9. 

proper  preparation  of  the  seed-bed,  (2)  with  proper  plant- 
ing  of   seed,    (3)  with   germination,   and   (4)  with   root 


FIG.  9.  —  Same  soil  as  shown  in  Fig.  8,  but  after  a  slight  pressure  of 
the  ringers  was  applied.     The  soil  has  crumbled  to  a  mellow  mass. 

development.  The  bad  effects  of  a  single  plowing  in  over- 
wet  soil  may  sometimes  be  apparent  for  several  years 
following. 


PHYSICAL   INTER-RELATIONS   IN  SOILS        31 

When  a  clay  or  loam  soil  is  permitted  to  become  over- 
dry,  the  plow  turns  it  over  in  lumps,  and  no  amount  of 
work  can  properly  fit  it  for  an  immediate  crop.  (See 
Fig.  20.) 

47.  Correct  moisture  condition  for  plowing.  —  Some- 
where between  the  over-wet  and  the  over-dry  condition 
is  the  ideal  moisture  point.  In  clay  soils  and  loams  this 
is  a  capillary  moisture  condition,  and  is  not  the  same  for 


FIG.  10.  —  A  mass  of  the  same  soil  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  8,  but  with  an 
over  amount  of  capillary  moisture,  as  is  proved  in  Fig.   11. 

every  soil.  Every  experienced  farmer  recognizes  this 
proper  state  of  moisture  and  takes  advantage  of  it,  even 
resorting  to  artificial  means  to  prolong  its  period  until 
he  can  complete  his  plowing.  When  plowed  in  this  con- 
dition, with  the  exception  of  the  heavy  clays,  the  normal 
soil  falls  away  from  the  mold-board  in  a  rather  uniformly 
mellow  mass.  (See  Fig.  19.)  When  in  this  state,  a 
mass  of  the  soil  firmly  crushed  in  the  hand  will  retain  its 
position  when  the  pressure  is  removed,  but  when  a  rolling 
pressure  is  applied  to  it  with  the  fingers,  it  readily  crumbles. 
(See  Figs.  8,  9,  10,  and  11.) 


32 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


48.   Effect  of  correct  plowing  on  the  later  preparation  of 
the  seed-bed.  —  When  the  soil  is  plowed  under  proper 


FIG.  11.  —  Same  soil  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  10.  The  excessive  amount 
of  capillary  water  prevents  its  crumbling.  Pressure  fails  to  crumble 
the  soil.  Instead  it  retains  a  waxy  appearance  and  consistency. 

moisture  conditions,  the  seed-bed  can  be  perfected  in  the 
shortest  possible  time,  and  with  the  least  labor.     There  is 

an  absence  of  lumps;  the 
soil  feels  soft  and  is  crumby. 
These  crumbs  are  not  soil 
grains,  as  they  are  sometimes 
supposed  to  be,  but  rather 
masses  of  grains,  or  particles, 
held  together  somewhat  as  is 
the  corn  in  a  popcorn  ball. 
The  chief  difference  is  that  in 
the  case  of  the  soil  crumbs, 
the  particles  are  held  together 
chiefly  by  a  film  of  capillary 
water.  (See  Fig.  12.)  If 
there  had  been  too  much  water  at  plowing,  the  soil  par- 
ticles would  have  been  rolled  closer  together  by  the  action 
of  the  plow.  With  the  correct  amount  of  capillary  water, 


FIG.  12.  —  Illustrating  soil 
crumbs.  C,  soil  crumbs  con- 
sisting of  soil  particles  held  in 
mass  by  capillary  film.  O, 
openings  between  the  crumbs. 


PHYSICAL   INTER-RELATIONS   IN  SOILS        33 

the  particles  were  first  loosened  by  being  rolled  over  each 
other,  and  then  rolled  into  crumbs  to  be  held  together  by 
films  of  water.  If  the  soil  had  been  over-dry,  the  plow 
could  not  have  caused  the  soil  particles  to  separate  and 
be  re-crumbed.  (Compare  Figs.  19  and  20.) 

49.  Sources  of  soil  heat.  —  The  sun  is  the  great  source 
of  heat,  and  its  heat  comes  to  the  earth  as  radiant  energy. 
A  part  of  the  sun's  heat  is  intercepted  by  clouds  and  other 
air  moisture ;   a  part  of  it  is  thrown  back  into  the  atmos- 
phere from  the  earth's  surface.     Some  heat  comes  from 
the  interior  of  the  earth  and,  under  certain  conditions, 
plays  an  important  part  in  the  behavior  of  soils. 

50.  Capillary  water  and  soil  temperature.  —  Mention 
has  already  been  made  of  the  importance  of  heat  in  crop- 
growing,  and  reference  has  been  made  to  Table  IV  showing 
the  average  temperature  of  soils  in  different  localities  for 
the  growing  months.     Capillary  water  plays  a  large  and 
important  part  in  modifying  soil  temperatures. 

51.  Specific  heat  of  soils.  —  The  amount  of  heat  re- 
quired  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a  pound  of  soil  one 
degree,  as  compared  with  the  amount  of  heat  required  to 
raise  the  temperature  of  a  pound  of  water  one  degree,  is 
called  the  specific  heat  of  that  soil.     The  specific  heat  is 
more  concisely  defined  as  the  "  number  of  calories  needed 
to  raise  one  gram  of  a  substance  1°  C."     Here,  however, 
metric  units  are  used,  though  the  specific  heat  values 
obtained  will  be  the  same. 

Bouyoucos,  working  with  Michigan  soils,1  found  : 

The  specific  heat  of  sand  to  be  .1929. 

The  specific  heat  of  clay  to  be  .2059  approximately  •§•. 

1  Page  495,  Report  of  Michigan  State  Board  of  Agriculture, 
1913. 


34  LAND   DRAINAGE 

The  specific  heat  of  loam  to  be  .2154. 

The  specific  heat  of  peat  to  be  .2525. 

The  specific  heat  of  water  is  1.0000. 

Roughly,  the  dry  sand,  dry  clay,  and  dry  loam  require 
one-fifth  as  much  heat  to  warm  a  given  weight  of  them 
through  one  degree  as  does  water.  The  fact  is  more 
impressive,  usually,  when  conversely  stated :  it  requires 
five  times  as  much  heat  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a 
pound  of  water  one  degree  as  to  raise  the  temperature 
of  a  pound  of  these  soils  one  degree. 

52.  Proper  water  content  for  agricultural  soils.  —  Hell- 
riegel  found  that  when  soils  experimented  with  contained 
50  per  cent  to  60  per  cent  of  the  water  they  were  capable 
of  holding,  their  moisture  condition  was  best  for  producing 
crops.     If  his  findings  are  accepted,  a  soil  may  be  said  to 
be  in  best  moisture  condition  to  support  crops  when  it 
contains  a  trifle  over  50  per  cent  of  the  water  it  would  be 
holding  if  all  of  the  space  between  its  soil  grains  were  full. 
For  sandy  soils  this  will  not  be  far  from  15  per  cent  of  their 
own  dry  weight ;  for  loams,  about  20  per  cent ;    for  clays, 
about  30  per  cent ;  and  for  the  finer  clays,  perhaps  as  much 
as  35  per  cent.     These  amounts  should  be  kept  constant 
during  the  germinating  and  growing  periods  of  the  crop. 

53.  Effect  of  water  on  soil  temperature.  —  For  loams, 
the  best  quantity  of  water  for  crop  production  is  near  20 
per  cent,  or  one-fifth  of  the  dry  weight  of  the  soil.     Thus 
an  amount  of  loam  soil  that  would  weigh  100  pounds 
dry,  should  carry  20  pounds  of  capillary  water,  and  with 
this  water  would  weigh  120  pounds.     One  hundred  pounds 
of  water  requires  five  times  as  much  heat  to  raise  its  tem- 
perature one  degree  as  does  100  pounds  of  soil.     Twenty 
pounds  of  water  requires  just  the  same  amount  of  heat  to 
raise  its  temperature  one  degree  as  does  the  100  pounds 


PHYSICAL   INTER-RELATIONS   IN  SOILS        35 

of  loam  which  it  would  properly  moisten.     In  other  words, 
the  properly  moistened  loam  requires  just  twice  as  much 


1906 

I80C 

/70( 
160, 
ISodt 
/M 

1300 


OE 


FIG.  13.  —  Chart  indicating  diagrammatically  the  number  of  English 
heat  units  required  to  raise  the  amount  of  water,  the  amount  of 
dry  soil,  and  the  combinations  of  soil  and  water,  respectively,  shown 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  chart,  33°  in  temperature  ;  that  is,  from  32°  F. 
to  65°  F.  65°  F.  is  the  minimum  desirable  temperature  for  soils 
for  the  germination  of  the  seeds  of  crops.  The  extreme  left  column 
represents  20  Ib.  of  water ;  the  next,  100  Ib.  loam  soil ;  while  the 
others  represent  100  Ib.  of  soil  with  increasing  amounts  of  water. 
The  oblique  line  indicates  the  heat  units  required. 

heat  to  raise  its  temperature  one  degree  as  would  the  same 
soil  dry. 


36  LAND   DRAINAGE 

54.  Warm  and  cold  soils.  —  Since  the  sands  normally 
carry  less  capillary  water  than  do  the  loams,  a  given 
amount  of  heat  will  raise  the  temperature  of  100  pounds 
of  sandy  soil,  with  its  best  water  content,  higher  than 
that  of  100  pounds  of  loam.     Therefore  it  is  said  that 
the  sands  are  warmer  than  the  loams.     (See  Fig.  13.) 

Since  clays  normally  carry  more  capillary  water  than 
do  the  loams,  a  given  amount  of  heat  cannot  raise  the  tem- 
perature of  100  pounds  of  clay  soil,  with  its  best  capillary 
water  content,  as  high  as  it  will  raise  the  temperature  of 
100  pounds  of  loam  with  its  best  moisture  content.  It  is 
said  of  clay  soils,  that  they  are  colder  than  the  loams. 
Examine  Figs.  14  and  15. 

55.  Over-wet  soils  are  cold  soils.  —  When  a  loam  soil 
carries  30  per  cent  of  water  instead  of  20  per  cent,  it  has 
a  half  more  water  than  it  should  carry.     It  will  require 
one-fourth  more  heat  to  raise  the  temperature  of  100  pounds 
of  loam  and  30  pounds  of  water  one  degree,  than  will  be 
required  for  100  pounds  of  loam,  and  its  20  pounds  of 
water.     The  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  latter 
combination  ten  degrees  in  temperature,  would  raise  the 
former  combination  only  eight  degrees. 

Soils  are  seldom  too  warm  in  temperate  climates. 
They  are  often  too  cold  because  of  the  presence  of  unde- 
sirable quantities  of  water.  An  increase  of  water  in  a  soil 
increases  the  specific  heat  of  the  combination ;  that  is,  it 
increases  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  its  tem- 
perature one  degree. 

56.  Heat    of    vaporization.  —  Wherever    evaporation 
takes  place,  heat  disappears  (is  rendered  latent).     This  is 
equally  true  whether  it  takes  place  from  the  surface  of 
a  field,  a  block  of  ice,  in  a  steam  boiler,  or  from  the  moistened 
finger  held  above  the  head  for  the  purpose  of  detecting 


PHYSICAL   INTER-RELATIONS   IN   SOILS        37 


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FIG.  14.  —  Chart  showing  the  effect  of  a  given  amount  of  heat  in  raising 
the  temperature  of  soils  with  different  water  content.  Curve  A 
shows  the  temperature  effect  produced  by  the  amount  of  heat  that 
would  raise  the  temperature  of  100  Ib.  of  dry  soil  10°.  Observe 
that  this  amount  of  heat  would  raise  the  same  soil  with  20  %  of 
water  but  5°,  and  with  50%  of  water,  less  than  3°.  Curve  B  shows 
the  temperature  effect  of  the  amount  of  heat  that  would  raise  100 
Ib.  of  soil  with  20%  of  water  10°.  Observe  that  if  the  same  soil 
contained  but  15%  of  water,  its  temperature  would  be  raised  nearly 
lli°,  but  if  it  contained  40  %  of  water,  it  would  be  raised  only  6.6°. 


38 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


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PHYSICAL   INTER-RELATIONS   IN   SOILS        39 

the  direction  of  the  wind.  The  laws  controlling  evapora- 
tion are  definite. 

The  heat  apparently  disappearing  in  the  evaporation  of 
one  pound  of  water  would  raise  the  temperature  of  966.6 
pounds  of  water  one  degree  F. 

57.  A  concrete  example.  —  An  acre-foot  of  dry  loam 
soil  weighs  about  2000  tons.  Moisture  is  continually 
passing  by  evaporation  from  the  surface  into  the  atmos- 
phere. Normally,  from  uncropped,  uncultivated  sur- 
faces, the  rate  of  this  evaporation  may  amount  to  5  to  10 
tons  an  acre  in  24  hours.  Some  condition  or  mismanage- 
ment may  readily  increase  the  rate  of  loss  by  2  tons  every 
24  hours.  It  is  not  infrequently  increased  five  times  this 
amount. 

In  the  evaporation  of  this  extra  2  tons  of  water,  enough 
heat  is  used  to  raise  the  temperature  of  (966.6  X  2  =) 
1933.2  tons  of  water  one  degree.  The  amount  of  heat 
that  would  raise  the  temperature  of  1933.2  tons  of  water 
one  degree  would  raise  that  of  five  times  that  number  of 
tons  of  dry  loam  one  degree.  1933.2  tons  X  5  =  9666.0 
tons. 

The  heat  that  would  raise  the  temperature  of  9666  tons 
of  loam  one  degree  would  raise  that  of  an  acre-foot  of 
loam,  weighing  2000  tons,  (fU<H)  4.8333°,  and  it  would 
raise  the  acre-foot  of  loam,  with  its  best  capillary  water 
content,  one-half  of  4.833°,  or  2.416°. 

The  same  heat  applied  to  the  upper  six  inches  of  the 
acre-foot  would  raise  its  temperature  (2.416°  X  2  =  ) 
4.832°  F. ;  applied  to  the  upper  four  inches  of  the  acre- 
foot,  it  would  raise  its  temperature  (2.416°  X  3  =  ) 
7.248°  F.  Since  the  upper  soil,  being  less  compact  than 
the  lower  soils,  weighs  less  to  an  acre-inch  than  do  the 
lower  soils,  the  warming  of  the  upper  six  inches  and  the 


40  LAND   DRAINAGE 

upper  four  inches  would   be  really  greater    than  these 
figures  show. 

These  figures  are  given  rather  to  emphasize  the  magni- 
tude of  the  forces  involved,  and  their  possibilities  when 
properly  directed,  than  to  arrive  at  absolutely  accurate 
results  in  practice. 

58.  Capillary  water  and  ventilation. — Hellriegell  found, 
as  has  previously  been  stated,  that  when  a  soil  contained 
more  than  60  per  cent  of  the  water  it  was  capable  of  hold- 
ing, the  results  in  crop-growing  were  not  so  satisfactory 
as  when  the  water  content  was  kept  between  50  and  60 
per  cent.     The  reason  offered  is  that  with  more  than 
60  per  cent  of  water  present,  too  little  room  is  left  within 
the  soil  mass  for  the  proper  movement  of  the  air,  —  for 
ventilation.     Note  that  with  the  pore  space  of  the  soil 
half  occupied  by  water,  there  is  left  an  equal  amount  of 
space  for  the  occupation  and  circulation  of  air. 

INFLUENCE    OF    SOIL    STRUCTURE    UPON    OTHER    PHYSICAL 
CONDITIONS 

While  a  proper  soil  structure  is  greatly  dependent 
on  other  factors,  such  as  water,  organic  matter,  use  of 
tools,  and  the  like,  it  in  turn  becomes  a  most  important 
factor  in  the  modification  and  control  of  other  physical 
conditions. 

59.  Agencies  active  in  soil  ventilation.  —  Nature  em- 
ploys several  agencies   by  which  to  cause  inward   and 
outward  movement  of  air  in  the  soil,  in  the  process  of 
soil  ventilation.     The  chief  agencies  concerned  in  pro- 
ducing these  movements  are :  (1)  diffusion,  (2)  changing 
soil  temperatures,  (3)  barometric  changes,  (4)  changing 
wind  velocities,  and   (5)  gravitational   water.     Each  of 


PHYSICAL  INTER-RELATIONS  IN  SOILS       41 

these  agencies  is  distinctive  in  its  action  and  might 
operate  alone.  All  work  together,  however,  and  each 
undoubtedly  modifies  to  some  extent  the  operation  of  the 
others ;  this  is  especially  true  of  the  last-named  agency. 

60.  Relation  of   soil  structure   to   soil  ventilation.  — 
An  important  part  of  any  system  of  house  ventilation 
is  a  capacious  set  of  flues,  for  both  the  intake  and  outlet  of 
air.     When  the  flues  are  insufficient  or  when  stopped  or 
clogged,  the  system  will  fail  to  do  proper  work.     A  soil  too 
compact  fails  to  permit  the  ready  and  proper  passage,  in- 
ward and  outward,  of  air.     A  soil  of  open  structure  possesses 
a  greater  capacity  for  air  than  does  a  soil  of  close  or  compact 
structure.     The  structure  of  the  soil,  therefore,  has  a  very 
direct  relation  to  soil  ventilation,  and  observation  reveals 
the  fact  that  crop-life  suffers  much  from  improper  and 
insufficient  ventilation. 

61.  Effects  of  life-forms.  —  Ventilation  is  greatly  pro- 
moted by  the  burrows  of  lower  animal  forms,  especially 
earthworms    and    ants.     These    creatures   are   found   in 
great  numbers  in  soils  in  which  the  physical  conditions  are 
correct,  and  burrow  to  considerable  depths.     The  roots 
of  some  plants  decompose  rather  rapidly  after  the  plant 
has  been  killed,  and  thus  leave  numerous  openings  or 
tunnels  through  the  soil.     The  size  of  these  roots  and 
the  depth  of  penetration  depend  much  on  the  physical 
condition  of  the  soil.     Every  agent  active  in  soil  ventila- 
tion is  assisted  by  the  work  of  these  forms  of  life  in  the 
accomplishment  of  its  function. 

62.  Influence  of  soil  structure  on  capillary  water.  —  It 
is  a  matter  of  common  observation  that  of  two  fields  of 
the  same  soil  formation,  the  same  topography,  and  the 
same  exposure,  one  will  produce  a  good  crop  of  corn  or 
wheat  in  a  rather  dry  year,  while  the  other  will  produce 


42  LAND   DRAINAGE 

only  an  indifferent  crop  in  a  year  of  ordinary  rainfall, 
and  will  yield  a  very  poor  crop,  or  may  even  fail  utterly, 
in  a  dry  year.  The  reasons  for  this  difference  may  be 
very  briefly  summed  up  as  follows : 

The  physical  structure  of  the  former  field  is  good,  that 
of  the  latter  is  poor.  When  the  structure  of  a  soil  is  good, 
its  capacity  to  hold  capillary  water  is  greater  than  when 


FIG.  16.  —  The  effect  of  lumps  lying  on  the  surface  of  a  field.  In  all 
cases  the  lumps  reflect  a  part  of  the  sun's  radiation.  Of  the  radia- 
tion which  enters  the  lump,  portions  are  distributed  and  radiated 
from  the  surface  of  the  lump  above  ground.  When  the  lump  rests 
upon  other  smaller  lumps,  leaving  air  cushions  between  the  lower 
surface  and  the  soil,  other  losses  occur.  That  part  of  the  soil  surface 
heavily  shaded  receives  no  direct  radiation. 

it  is  bad  —  the  storage  capacity  is  greater.  The  soil  of 
good  structure  is  able  to  retain  its  supply  of  capillary 
water  from  evaporation  much  more  successfully  than  can 
the  soil  of  poor  structure.  It  offers  a  much  better  oppor- 
tunity for  the  development  of  the  root  system  of  the  crop 
than  does  the  soil  of  poor  structure.  Hence  it  is  that  a 
soil  of  good  physical  structure  has  been  known  to  produce 
a  large  crop  of  wheat  without  rainfall  between  planting 
and  harvest,  when  adjacent  fields  failed. 


PHYSICAL   INTER-RELATIONS  IN  SOILS       43 

63.  Influence  of  soil  structure  on  temperature.  —  In 
comparing  a  soil  of  good  physical  structure  with  one  of 
poor  structure,  the  following  facts  are  offered  in  favor  of 
the  former :    it  is  not  subject  to  such  extremes  of   tem- 
perature;   it  does  not  cool  so  rapidly  by  radiation;  it 
receives  more  heat  from  the  sun  than  does  a  lumpy  soil 
(see  Fig.  16) ;  in  weather  of  average  rainfall  less  water 
evaporates  from  the  soil  of  good  structure,  and  therefore  it 
is  able  to  utilize  more  of  the  sun's  heat ;  it  is  the  warmer  soil. 

INFLUENCE  OF  GRAVITATIONAL  WATER  ON  OTHER  PHYSICAL 
CONDITIONS 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  gravitational  water, 
its  nature  and  movements.  Its  relations  to  other  factors 
in  agriculture  and  its  own  individual  functions  now  call 
for  specific  attention.  In  three  respects,  gravitational 
water  plays  a  very  important  part  in  crop  production. 
In  several  particulars  its  extended  presence  is  undesirable, 
for  reasons  set  forth  in  this  chapter. 

64.  A   replenisher   of   capillary   water.  —  The   water- 
table  is  the  surface  of  the  water  fully  occupying  the  pore 
space  in  the  soil.     It  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  surface 
of  the  standing  water  in  the  soil.     It  determines  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  in  the  well.     While  water  will  rise  in  a 
soil  to  a  considerable  height  above  the  water-table  by 
capillarity,  the  rate  of  rise  and  the  height  to  which  it  will 
rise  are  not  sufficient  to  supply  the  ordinary  crops  in  an 
average  soil.     The  capillary  supply,  therefore,  must  be 
replenished  in  another  way.     It  is  accomplished  by  the 
passage  into,  or  through  the  soils,  of  gravitational  water. 
When  a  rain  occurs,  the  water  therefrom  passes  down  into 
the  soil  as  gravitational  water.     If  the  quantity  is  rela- 


44  LAND   DRAINAGE 

tively  small,  and  the  capillary  supply  in  the  soil  has  been 
reduced,  it  distributes  itself,  as  it  moves  downward  over 
the  walls  of  the  soil  particles,  as  capillary  water.  If  the 
quantity  is  large,  it  distributes  itself  in  the  same  manner 
until  all  the  soil  particles  are  fully  invested  with  capillary 
water,  after  which  any  residue  moves  downward  as  gravi- 
tational water.  The  capillary  supply  is  thus  brought 
to  maximum. 

65.  Assists  in  soil  ventilation.  —  One  of  nature's  agents 
in  soil  ventilation  is  gravitational  water.     This  water, 
entering  the  soil,  fills  all  the  open  space,  thus  driving  out 
the  air  which  previously  occupied  the  open  space.     As 
the  gravitational  water  passes  downward,  fresh  air  enters 
to  take  its  place.     The  operation  results  in  the  removal 
of  the  air  in  the  soil  and  replacing  it  with  a  supply  of 
new  air  —  a  complete  change  of  air. 

66.  A  cleanser  of  soils.  —  It  is  said  that  in  the  dis- 
integration of  soils,  and  in  the  activities  of  plant  life  in  the 
soil,  there  develop  certain  salts,  conventionally  spoken  of 
as  alkalies,  and  possibly  poisonous  by-products  of  plants, 
sometimes  spoken  of  as  toxines,1  which,  if  permitted  to 
accumulate,   would  work  injury  to   growing  crops.     In 
regions  of  fair  rainfall,  the  frequent  passage  of  gravita- 
tional water  prevents  the  accumulation  of  any  injurious 
salts  and,  to  some  extent  at  least,  the   poisonous  by- 
products of  plants. 

67.  Standing  water  or  gravitational  water  in  fields 
destroys  soil  structure.  —  It  has  been  previously  stated 
that  the  crumby  condition,  so  desirable  and  so  charac- 
teristic of  a  mellow  soil,  is  due,  in  large  measure,  to  the 
capillary  water  investing  the  soil  particles,  which  in  turn 
make  up  soil  crumbs.     The  outer  film  of  the  capillary 

1  Schreiner  and  Skinner,  Bui.  70,  Bureau  of  Soils. 


PHYSICAL   INTER-RELATIONS  IN   SOILS        45 


water  acts  as  a  membrane  holding 
the  particles  of  the  crumbs  loosely 
together.  (See  Figs.  12,  17,  and  18.) 
When  the  pore-space  in  loam  or 
clay  soils  is  filled  with  water,  as  it 
is  when  gravitational  or  surface 
water  is  present,  the  films  of  capil- 
lary water,  which  may  have  held 
the  soil  in  crumbs,  can  no  longer 

exist,  and  the 

particles, 

which     may 

have  been  held 

in     crumbs, 

FIG.    18.  —  Pyramid    of  proceed  to  fall 

sandy    loam    held    in  apart  an(J  then 
position    by    capillary 

film.     It   was   formed  to      Settle      to- 

by     pouring     a     fine  gether,    as    the    FIG.     17.  —  A   mass    of 


steady    stream  of  the 

soil  into  a  dish  in  which     particles 

had    been    previously 

placed  a  small  amount 

of  water.     As  the  pour- 


sand     loam      held      n 

a 
film   (about   twice  the 


Set- 

to       tne 
.  „ 

bottom    of  the 
ing      continued,      the     glags    (part   5  Qf   Exp    5    p    230),  Or 
water  climbed  up  the     ' 

mass   of   soil    slowly    as    when    the    pyramid    collapsed 
enough   so   that   the    (part  2&,  Exp.  7,  p.  231).     Every 

tension  of  the  film  held     2e  \ 

it  in  place.    The  pour-    farmer    who    has   worked    clay   or 
ing  was  continued  till    ioam   sons     Or   observed   their   be- 

the  water  was  entirely  . 

transformed  into  capil-    havior,  knows  what  happens  when 
lary  water.    The  col-    ^ey  become  saturated  with  water 

umn  stands  2£  inches 

in  height.  The  column    even  tor  a  tew  hours.      JNo  matter 
retained  its  form  in  an    jlow  excellent  the  condition  of  mel- 

open      room      several 

hours     after      being    lowness   may  have    been,   they   at 
formed  and  illustrates    once  begin  to  puddle  or  pack.     The 


the     strength    of    the 

capillary  film. 


j  j- 

longer  the  saturated  condition  exists, 


46  LAND   DRAINAGE 

the  more  compact  the  soil  becomes,  until  finally  all  the 
mellowing  effects  brought  about  by  capillary  water,  tools, 
roots,  and  the  burrowings  of  animal  forms,  are  overcome 
and  the  mass  of  soil  and  subsoil  have  their  pore-space 
reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  are  left  in  the  poorest  possible 


FIG.  19.  —  The  appearance  of  a  recently  plowed  soil  mass  when  the 
plowing  has  been  performed  with  the  soil  in  proper  capillary  mois- 
ture condition. 

condition  of  structure  to  support  plant  growth.  This 
is  the  condition  of  all  soils  upon  or  in  which  water  stands 
for  extended  periods. 

68.  Increased  labor  required  to  fit  puddled  soils  for 
crops.  —  A  soil  whose  physical  condition  has  been  thus 
compacted  by  the  presence  of  standing  water  is  subject  to 
more  rapid  evaporation  losses  when  relieved  of  its  gravita- 
tional water.  As  a  result,  it  is  difficult,  sometimes  impos- 


PHYSICAL   INTER-RELATIONS  IN  SOILS       47 

sible,  to  take  advantage  of  the  proper  moisture  condition 
for  plowing  and  the  consequent  partial  re-mellowing  that 
might  come  therefrom.  The  plow,  therefore,  leaves  the 
soil  in  a  very  lumpy  condition.  King,  in  his  "The  Soil,"  1 
gives  a  very  striking  illustration  of  the  extra  expenditure 


FIG.  20.  —  The  appearance  of  soil  plowed  in  an  overdry  condition,  and 
especially  after  it  has  been  subjected  to  standing  water  for  some 
time.  The  mellowing  tools  following  the  plow  will  produce  a  zone 
of  mellow  soil  as  shown.  They  cannot,  however,  mellow  the  soil 
to  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  and  crops  planted  upon  soil  in  such 
a  condition  must  fail  wholly  or  in  part. 

of  labor  required  to  develop  a  proper  condition  of  tilth 
which,  after  all,  was  then  only  an  approximate  condition. 
Complete  restoration,  even  under  the  less  aggravated 
initial  condition  which  he  there  describes,  was  probably 
impossible  for  that  season.  (See  Figs.  19  and  20.) 

1  King's  The  Soil,  p.  189. 


48  LAND   DRAINAGE 

69.  Gravitational  water  may  interfere  with  ventilation. 
-The  effect  of  gravitational  water  upon  soil  ventilation 

may  be  direct  or  indirect.  When  water  occupies  all  the 
pore-space  within  a  soil,  practically  all  air  is  thereby  ex- 
cluded, —  a  direct  effect.  Seeds  cannot  germinate  under 
such  a  condition  and  crops  previously  occupying  the  soil 
quickly  die. 

Whenever  the  physical  structure  of  a  soil  is  affected  by 
the  presence  of  gravitational  water  to  the  extent  of 
compacting  the  surface  or  reducing  the  pore-space,  ven- 
tilation is  thereby  restricted.  This  restriction  of  ven- 
tilation may  be  sufficient  to  interfere  with  all  those  proc- 
esses dependent  upon  soil  ventilation.  These  effects 
would  be  called  indirect  effects. 

70.  Gravitational  water  and  food  losses.  —  Gravita- 
tional water,  as  it  moves  downward  through  the  soil, 
dissolves  and  carries  away  more  or  less  of  the  soluble  plant- 
foods  that  have  been  prepared  within  the  soils.     The  more 
slowly  gravitational  water  moves  downward,  the  larger 
the  amount  of  soluble  plant-food  it  takes  with  it.     The 
converse  is  equally  true. 

Indirectly,  the  presence  of  gravitational  water  causes 
the  destruction  and  therefore  the  loss  of  prepared  or 
partially  prepared  nitrogen  compounds,  by  the  process 
of  denitrification,  already  described  and  several  times 
alluded  to.  Denitrification  takes  place  when  air  is  ex- 
cluded from  the  soils. 

71.  Gravitational  water  and  soil  temperature.  —  The 
presence  of  gravitational  water  in  a  soil  directly  affects 
its  temperature  in  two  ways  :   (1)  it  increases  the  amount 
of  heat  required  to  warm  the  soil;    (2)  it  causes  great 
losses  of  heat  that  might  otherwise  be  used  in  warming 
the  soil.     Indirectly,  there  results  to  the  soil  later  great 


PHYSICAL   INTER-RELATIONS   IN   SOILS        49 

losses  of  heat  because  of  improper  physical  conditions 
resulting  from  the  long-continued  presence  of  gravita- 
tional water.  (See  Fig.  16.) 

72.  Increased  specific  heat.  —  It  has  already  been 
shown  (paragraph  51)  that  practically  five  times  as  much 
heat  is  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of 
water  one  degree,  as  for  one  pound  of  clay  or  loam  soil, 
and  that,  therefore,  two  times  the  amount  of  heat  is 
required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a  given  weight  of 
soil  with  a  20  per  cent  water  content  one  degree  as  for  a  soil 
with  no  water  content.  The  presence  of  any  amount 
of  water  in  a  soil  above  the  best  amount  for  crop-growing  is 
undesirable.  It  appropriates  heat  that  would  otherwise 
be  used,  in  part  at  least,  in  warming  the  soil  with  its  proper 
water  content.  In  Fig.  14  are  charted  the  temperatures 
to  which  the  same  amounts  of  heat  would  raise  100  pounds 
of  the  same  soil  but  with  different  water  contents.  Curve 
A  shows  the  temperature  effect  of  the  amount  of  heat  that 
would  raise  100  pounds  of  the  dry  loam  soil  ten  degrees 
in  temperature,  if  the  same  heat  were  applied  to  the  same 
soil  with  any  one  of  the  water  contents  indicated ;  curve 
B,  that  which  would  raise  100  pounds  of  soil  and  its  20 
pounds  of  water  content  10°  F. ;  curve  C  (Fig.  15),  that 
which  would  raise  100  pounds  of  loam  soil  with  its  20  per 
cent  water  content  from  32°  F.  to  65°  F. ;  curve  D  (Fig. 
15),  that  which  would  raise  the  temperature  of  100  pounds 
of  clay  soil  with  a  30  per  cent  water  content  from  32°  F. 
to  65°  F. ;  curve  E  (Fig.  15),  that  which  would  raise  the 
temperature  of  100  pounds  of  a  sandy  soil  with  its  15  per 
cent  (best)  water  content  from  32°  F.  to  65°  F.  The 
steepnesses  of  the  curves  emphasize  the  meaning  of  the 
terms  "  warm  soils  "  and  "  cold  soils."  They  emphasize, 
too,  the  agricultural  importance  of  preventing  the  presence, 


50  LAND   DRAINAGE 

in  the  soil,   of   unnecessary  amounts  of   even  capillary 
water. 

As  the  curves  approach  that  part  of  the  chart  indicating 
a  saturated  condition  of  soil,  they  indicate  a  very  low 
temperature. 

73.  Heat  lost  in  the  evaporation  of  gravitational  water. 
—  In  paragraph  56  it  was  pointed  out  that  evaporation 
of  water  always  results  in  the  loss  of  heat,  that  the  amount 
of  heat  used  in  the  evaporation  of  unit  weight  of  water 
is  constant,  and  that  the  heat  rendered  latent  in  the  evap- 
oration of  two  tons  of  water  from  an  acre  of  soil  is  suffi- 
cient to  warm  an  acre-foot  with  its  normal  (20  per  cent) 
content  of  water  2.416°  F. 

King  and  his  assistant  found  that  from  the  unculti- 
vated surface  of  a  sandy  loam,  placed  in  cylinders  and 
exposed  in  an  open  field  for  a  period  of  thirty-seven 
days,  losses  by  evaporation  occurred  at  the  rate  of  7.24 
tons  to  the  acre  for  twenty-four  hours.  In  this  case, 
the  water-table  averaged  20  inches  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil.  The  series  of  experiments  of  which 
this  was  a  part  showed  that  the  evaporation  losses  vary 
with  the  kind  of  soil  and  with  the  time  it  has  been  under 
cultivation.1 

In  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College  soil  laboratories, 
in  experiments  with  loam  soils  repeated  through  a 
period  of  fourteen  years,  the  losses  by  evaporation  from 
uncultivated  surfaces  24  inches  above  the  water-table 
differed  very  little  from  10  tons  to  the  acre  for  twenty-four 
hours. 

King  concluded,  from  experiments  in  the  open  field, 
that  from  very  wet  soils  in  April  and  May,  the  evaporation 
losses  frequently  amount  to  28  tons  to  33  tons  to  the 

1  Report  Wisconsin  Exp.  Station,  1898,  p.  134. 


PHYSICAL   INTER-RELATIONS   IN   SOILS        51 

acre  in  twenty-four  hours.1  The  averages  of  these  losses 
from  very  wet  soils  exceed  that  from  normally  moist 
soil  mentioned  above,  by  over  20  tons  to  the  acre  for 
twenty-four  hours.  In  the  conversion  of  this  amount 
of  water  into  vapor-,  heat  was  rendered  latent  sufficient 
to  raise  an  acre-foot  of  loam  soil,  with  its  normal  20  per 
cent  of  capillary  water,  by  24.16°  F.  Curve  F  in  Fig.  15 
shows  the  temperature  effects  of  the  heat  here  involved  if 
applied  to  one  acre-foot  of  soil  of  varying  water  content,  at 
a  temperature  of  32°  F.  When  a  saturated  condition  of 
soil  exists  through  a  considerable  period,  the  losses  of  heat 
are  practically  multiplied  by  the  days  of  the  period.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  if  these  losses  were 
prevented,  not  all  the  heat  thus  conserved  would  be 
stored  in  the  soil ;  for  there  are  other  factors  involved  that 
limit  the  rise  of  soil  temperatures.  These  factors,  never- 
theless, would  permit  a  very  considerable  rise  of  tem- 
perature; indeed  they  would  permit  an  approximate 
approach  to  optimum  conditions  which  cannot  take  place 
while  such  losses  occur  from  evaporation  of  gravitational 
water.  The  figures  are  given  especially  to  call  attention 
to  the  tremendous  misdirection  of  the  heat  supply  under 
the  conditions  indicated. 

74.  The  effects  of  gravitational  water  upon  temperature 
through  bad  soil  structure.  —  Mention  has  already  been 
made  of  the  serious  extent  to  which  puddling  may  take  place 
in  clay  and  loam  soils  that  remain,  even  for  a  relatively 
short  time,  in  a  saturated  condition  (paragraphs  67  and  68), 
and  of  the  effects  of  such  physical  condition  upon  crops 
planted  in  such  soil,  and  of  the  large  amount  of  labor  re- 
quired to  reduce  the  lumpy  condition  after  plowing. 

1  Report  Wise.  Exp.  Station,  1891,  p.  100,  and  Report  Wise. 
Exp.  Station,  1890,  p.  149. 


52  LAND   DRAINAGE 

Such  attempts  at  lump  reduction  are  usually  only  indif- 
ferently successful,  and  the  degree  of  failure  is  often 
indicated  by  the  number  of  lumps  lying  upon  the  surface 
of  the  field.  The  writer  has  found  that  at  10 : 00  A.M. 
on  a  sunshiny  morning  in  late  June,  the  temperature  of  a 
lump-covered  soil  was  6°  F.  lower  than  that  of  a  similar 
near-by  soil  in  proper  tilth,  at  a  depth  two  inches  below 
the  surface  in  each  case.  Fig.  16  illustrates  how  the  sun's 
rays  are  intercepted  as  they  approach  the  lump-covered 
surface  and,  in  considerable  degree,  reflected  and  radiated 
back  into  the  air. 

75.  The  relations  of  capillary  water  summarized.  — 
Capillary  water  is  helpful  in  agriculture.      It  performs  a 
variety  of  functions : 

A  solvent  of  foods ; 
A  carrier  of  foods, 

To  the  plant, 

Through  the  plant ; 
A  food  for  the  plant ; 
A  factor  in  soil  structure ; 
Assists  in  the  preparation  of  foods ; 
Affects  temperature  of  soils ; 
Affects  ventilation  of  soils. 

In  excess : 

It  may  affect  temperature  unfavorably ; 
It  is  likely  to  affect  ventilation  unfavorably. 

76.  The  relations  of  gravitational  water  summarized. — 
Three  helpful  functions  of  gravitational  water  are : 

To  replenish  the  capillary  supply ; 
To  assist  in  soil  ventilation  (in  quick  passages  down- 
ward through  the  soil) ; 


PHYSICAL   INTER-RELATIONS  IN   SOILS        53 

To  wash  from  the  soil  objectionable  salts  which,    if 
allowed  to  accumulate,  might  do  harm  to  plant  life. 

Aside  from  the  desirable  functions  named  above,  the 
presence  of  gravitational  water  in  a  soil  works  harm 
rather  than  good,  and  the  list  of  resulting  evils  is  long  and 
coextensive.  The  continued  presence  of  gravitational 
water  in  a  soil : 

Destroys  soil  structure,  which  results  in  a  number  of 
associated  evils,  and  increases  the  labor  required  in 
preparing  the  seed-bed,  and  in  performing  many  of  the 
operations  necessary  in  caring  for  and  harvesting  the 
crop. 

Interferes  with  soil  ventilation  either  directly  by  par- 
tially or  wholly  occupying  the  pore-space  of  the  soil,  or 
indirectly  by  modifying  the  soil  structure.  In  either  case 
there  follows  a  partial  or  complete  interruption  of  germina- 
tion, plant  growth,  and  food  preparation.  There  follows, 
also,  food  removal  and  food  destruction. 

Reduces  temperature,  because  of  the  removal  of  heat 
from  the  soil,  or  the  diversion  of  heat  that  would  other- 
wise get  to  the  soil.  The  result  here  is  interruption  or 
prevention  of  (1)  germination,  (2)  root  action,  (3)  food 
preparation  (chemical,  physical,  biological).  The  ulti- 
mate result  is  (1)  increased  labor,  (2)  increased  incon- 
venience, (3)  decreased  yields,  and  even  (4)  total  failure  of 
crops. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  presence  of  gravi- 
tational water  in  agricultural  soils,  even  for  moderately 
extended  periods,  is  undesirable,  and  that,  when  neces- 
sary, means  should  be  provided  to  prevent  such  presence. 


54  LAND   DRAINAGE 

DRAINAGE  EFFECTS 

The  steps  in  soil  improvement  to  be  expected  from 
proper  tile  drainage  are  summarized  in  the  following  para- 
graphs. They  are  presented  here  to  bring  the  facts  into 
perspective. 

77.  Effects  of  the  permanent  removal  of  standing  water. 
—  It  has  been  shown  that  no  matter  how  excellent  the 
structure  of  a  soil  may  be,  the  excellence  cannot  be  main- 
tained if  the  soil  is  subjected  for  a  time  to  a  state  of  satura- 
tion. It  has  been  shown  why,  and  to  what  an  extreme,  the 
packing  or  puddling  may  proceed  under  such  adverse 
moisture  conditions.     It  might  seem  that  where  the  clay 
loams  and  clays  have  been  subjected  to  the  presence  of 
standing  water  for  years,  or  even  throughout  the  major 
part  of  each  year  for  a  series  of  years,  the  soils  would  be- 
come so  compacted  as  to  render  it  impossible  to  develop 
in  them  the  physical  conditions  so  essential  to  crop  pro- 
duction.    This,  however,  is  not  the  case.     The  rapidity 
with  which  these  desirable  physical  conditions  develop, 
after  provision  has  been  made  for  the  quick  removal  of 
all  gravitational  or  standing  water,  is  frequently  surprising. 

78.  The  way  in  which  the  changes  take  place.  —  When 
the  ground  water  is  permanently  lowered  to  three  or  four 
feet  below  the  surface,  where  previously  it  stood  almost 
permanently  at  or  near  the  surface,   one  of    the    first 
effects  of  the  lowering  is  the  development  of  many  cleav- 
ages or  cracks,  such  as  are  seen  in  Fig.  21.     These  cleav- 
ages occur  because  of  the  shrinking  of  the  soil  as  it  gives 
down  the  excess  of  water  filling  its   pore  space.     This 
statement  may  seem  to  contradict  the  statement  in  para- 
graph 67  concerning  the  degree  to  which  the  pore  space 
is  reduced  in  persistently  saturated  soils.     All  saturated 


PHYSICAL   INTER-RELATIONS   IN   SOILS        55 


clays,  after  their  pore  space  has  been  reduced  far  below 
that  desirable  or  necessary  to  permit  the  support  of  crops, 
shrink  when  their 
water  content  is 
reduced.  The  cleav- 
ages extend  in  differ- 
ent directions  but  at 
first  chiefly  verti- 
cally. The  chief  re- 
sult is  that  the  mass 
of  drying  soil  is  thus 
reduced  to  blocks, 
app  r  oxim  ately 
cubes,  in  form. 

With  the  next 
thorough  wetting  of 
the  soil  that  occurs 
because  of  a  heavy 
rain  or  melting  snow 
or  flooding  (for  ir- 
rigation purposes), 
these  cubes  of  soil 
will  swell  until  most 
of  the  cracks  are 
closed  or  nearly  so. 


FIG.  21.  —  A  column  of  heavy  clay,  showing 
the  cleavages  which  take  place  upon  air 
drying.  It  illustrates  the  way  in  which 
saturated  clays  check  upon  the  removal  of 
the  excess  of  moisture.  It  also  indicates 
that  this  soil  would  respond  readily  to 
tile  drainage.  With  successive  wettings 
and  dryings  the  checking  would  multiply. 


They    will    not    be 

closed     so     tightly, 

however,   but   that, 

as     the     excess     of 

water    causing    the 

wetting  passes  downward,  these  cracks  will  open  again. 

With  this  second  shrinking,  new  cleavages  occur  so  that, 

when  this  shrinking  ceases,  the   blocks  of  soil  will  be 


56  LAND   DRAINAGE 

broken  into  smaller  blocks.  As  succeeding  wettings  and 
dryings  occur,  the  subdividing  of  the  masses  of  soil  con- 
tinues until  they  become  very  small. 

79.  Ventilation  plays  a  part.  —  As  the  cleavages  in  the 
soil  occur,  air  enters  and  comes  in  contact  with  the  soil 
masses ;  the  degree  of  ventilation,  therefore,  is  determined 
by  the  extent  of  the  cleavaging.      The  contact  of  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  with  the  soil  particles  in  the  walls  of 
the  masses  results    in    chemical  reactions  which  mean 
further  soil  and  food  preparation.     The  surface  layer  is 
thus  made  ready  to  respond  to  the  action  of  tools  in  its 
preparation  for  the  reception  of  the  seed. 

80.  Other  agents.  —  Crops  may  now  be  planted.     Their 
roots,  developing,  reach  outward  and  downward.     Root 
progress  is  favored  by  the  crumbling  and  mellowing  al- 
ready mentioned  as  having  occurred.     But  these  roots, 
as  they  progress,  wedge  apart,  disintegrate,  and  arch  the 
soil  particles,  with  the  result  that,  at  the  close  of  the  sea- 
son, the  whole  soil  mass  is  more  mellow  and  open  because 
of  their  presence.     Then,  as  they  later  decay,  the  chemical 
products  resulting  probably  cause  further  soil  ameliora- 
tion. 

81.  Animal-forms.  —  The  conditions  have  now  become 
propitious  also  for  various  forms  of  animal  life  to  take  up 
their  abode  in  the  soil.     Earthworms,  ants,  and  other 
creatures  burrow  in  the  soil,  filling  it  with  openings  which 
become  passageways  for  both  drainage  and  ventilation. 
The  materials  removed  from  these  passageways,   chiefly 
mineral  matter,  are  deposited  upon  the  surface  to  be  sub- 
jected to  the  direct  action  of  sunshine  and  air,   and  to 
cover  the  fragments  of  organic  matter  already  lying  upon 
the  surface.     Again  these  creatures,  for  purposes  which 
may  be  attributed  to  them  as  economic,  convey  from  the 


PHYSICAL  INTER-RELATIONS  IN  SOILS       57 

surface  to  their  burrows,  great  quantities  of  fragments  of 
organic  (chiefly  vegetable)  material,  the  greater  part  of 
which  remains  there  to  become  a  part  of  the  soil  and  per- 
form important  functions  in  developing  desirable  physical 
conditions.  There  -thus  arise  various  cycles  of  activities, 
all  of  which  result  in  the  mellowing,  deepening,  and  per- 
fecting of  the  soils. 

82.  Food-preparers.  —  At  the  same  time  there  gradu- 
ally come  in  and  develop  such  vegetable  forms  as  the  nitri- 
fiers  and  nitrogen  fixers,  and  other  food-preparers.     In 
the  absence  of  air  they  cannot  exsist ;  at  low  temperatures, 
they  work  not  at  all  or  only  feebly.     With  the  mellowing 
of  the  soil,  opportunity  is  afforded  for  the  distributing  and 
multiplying  of  their  colonies.     With  the  more  complete 
access  of  air  and  increasing  temperature,  and  with  the 
gradual  accumulation  of  organic  matter  from  the  decom- 
position of  roots  or  from  the  improved  condition  of  the 
organic  matter  which  may  already  be  present,  the  activi- 
ties and  products  of  the  nitrifiers  and  free  nitrogen  fixers 
are  greatly  increased.     Moreover,  those  processes,  whether 
physical,  chemical,   or  biological,   by  which  the  mineral 
foods  are  prepared,  are  greatly  favored   by  these  same 
conditions. 

83.  The    final    results.  —  Under    adverse    conditions 
evil  results  seem  to  be  cumulative,  and  usually  really  are 
so.     It  is  equally  true  that  if  the  removal  of  undesirable 
ground  water  is  supplemented  with  rational  practice,  the 
beneficial  results  are  cumulative.     As  the  changes  above 
described  take  place,  every  other  desirable  physical  con- 
dition is  favored.     Optimum  temperature,  optimum  ven- 
tilation, optimum  capillarity  are  all  approached,  and  all 
mutually  cooperate  as  is  always  the  case  when  condi- 
tions are  correct  or  favorable. 


CHAPTER  III 

HUMID  AREAS  AND   THEIR  RECLAMATION 

THERE  are  large  areas,  at  the  present  time,  unavailable 
for  cropping  because  of  the  presence  of  excessive  amounts 
of  water.  In  the  United  States  they  probably  aggregate 
over  135,000  square  miles.  According  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,1  there  are  in  the  United  States 
79,000,000  acres  of  land,  exclusive  of  tidal  marshes,  that 
cannot  be  cultivated  because  of  excessive  moisture.  This 
aggregate  is  reclassified  in  part  as  follows :  52,665,000 
acres  continually  wet ;  6,826,000  acres  wet  grazing  lands ; 
14,000,000  acres  periodically  overflowed ;  4,766,000  acres 
farm  lands  periodically  swampy.  It  is  asserted  that  all 
of  this  land  could  be  drained  at  a  net  profit  of 
$1,594,000,000  measured  by  increase  in  land  values, 
with  an  increased  annual  income  of  $273,000,000.  They 
are  all  called  swamp  land,  and  are  variously  classified. 

84.  Common  swamps.  —  There  are  still  left  some  ex- 
tended areas  of  flat  prairie  lands  which  function  imper- 
fectly or  negatively,  because  of  the  presence  of  excessive 
water. 

On  the  Atlantic  slope  there  are  some  very  large  fresh- 
water swamp  areas,  of  which  the  Dismal  Swamp  in  Vir- 
ginia is  an  example.  These  swamps  aggregate  many 
thousand  square  miles  in  area. 

85.  Alluvial  plains.  —  There  are  considerable  areas  of 
alluvial  lands  liable,   at  times,  to  overflow,   but  at  all 

1  Year  Book,  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1912,  p.  226. 
58 


HUMID   AREAS   AND    THEIR   RECLAMATION     59 
&-   <?/ .    £, 


FIG.  22.  —  Map  of  Township  in  La  Fourche  Parish,  Louisiana,  showing 
the  way  in  which  the  early  French  Acadians  plotted  their  farms  on 
the  naturally  drained  margins  of  the  rivers  and  bayous.  Back  of 
these  parcels  of  land  is  marsh. 

times  subject  to  freshets  because  of  rains  or  of  melting 
snow.  The  fact  that,  in  their  lower  stretches  at  least, 
the  surfaces  of  these  plains  slope  away  from  their  rivers 
rather  than  toward  them,  results  in  extended  flooded 
areas,  at  first  well  back  from  the  river  near  the  edge  of 
the  valleys.  The  areas  increase  in  extent  as  the  outlet 
of  the  river  is  approached,  until  often  the  greater  part,  or 
all,  of  the  region,  excepting  a  fringe  along  the  stream,  is 


60  LAND   DRAINAGE 

swamp.  This  is  true  of  the  great  Mississippi  Delta  region. 
The  state  of  Louisiana  has  approximately  10,000,000 
acres  of  swamp  lands.  The  map  (Fig.  22)  shows  a  section 
of  the  Bayou  La  Fourche,  at  one  time  a  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  how  the  farms  of  the  descendants  of  the 
early  French  Acadians  occupy  the  only  naturally  drained 
lands  at  the  time  of  their  coming.  The  farms  are  very 
narrow  and  lie  practically  at  right  angles  to  the  stream. 
They  range  from  one  mile  to  one-and-a-half  miles  in 
length,  and  touch  or  include  marsh  land  at  their  rear. 
For  a  distance  of  forty  miles  south  of  Lockport,  Louisiana, 
these  farms  are  said  to  average  less  than  250  feet  in  width. 

These  alluvial  areas  are  among  the  richest  lands  on 
the  globe  and  are  full  of  agricultural  potentiality. 

86.  Swamps  of  the  drift  regions.  —  Throughout  the 
regions  of  glacial  drift,  there  are  areas  of  swamp  or  marsh- 
lands, ranging  in  size  from  a  few  square  rods  to  thousands 
of  acres,  and  even  hundreds  of  square  miles.  They  range 
in  quality  of  soil  from  the  so-called  black  ash  and  cedar 
swamp,  which,  while  rich  in  organic  matter,  contains  large 
quantities  of  mineral,  to  deposits  of  almost  pure  organic 
matter,  in  many  cases  but  slightly  decayed.  They  run 
in  depth  from  a  few  inches  to  many  feet.  They  possess 
a  considerable  range  of  agricultural  values,  depending 
upon  depth,  composition,  underlying  subsoil,  and  the  like. 
The  soils  that  have  made  Kalamazoo,  Michigan,  famous 
for  the  celery  sent  out  to  the  world,  belong  to  this  class, 
as  do  also  the  soils  that  have  made  Michigan  famous  as  a 
producer  of  peppermint  and  spearmint  oils.1 

1  Michigan  produces  88  per  cent  of  the  peppermint  oil  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States  and  60  per  cent  of  the  peppermint 
oil  produced  in  the  world.  R.  S.  Shaw,  Spec.  Bui.  70,  Mich. 
Agr.  Col.  Exp.  St. 


HUMID   AREAS   AND    THEIR   RECLAMATION     61 

All  these  marsh  soils  have  been  formed  under  excessive 
moisture  conditions.  Their  formation,  classification,  and 
characteristics  are  very  interesting.1  Their  agricultural 
value  depends  finally  upon  the  removal  of  the  excess  of 
water  and  upon  their  later  management. 

87.  Marine  marshes.  —  These  marshes  have  been  pro- 
duced by  the  filling  of  arms  of  the  sea  by  dense  growths 
of  marine  vegetation.     To  this  mass  have  been  added  con- 
siderable amounts  of  silt  and  the  shells  and  skeletons  of 
marine  life  by  the  action  of  the  tides.     Many  of  these 
marshes  are  very  rich  and  when  reclaimed  prove  very 
productive.     Shaler  places  the  area  of  the  marine  marshes 
of  the  United  States,  "  including  only  the  deposits  which 
are  bared  at  half  tide,  and  which  owe  their  formation 
mainly  to  the  growth  of  grass-like  plants,"  at  nearly  10,000 
square  miles,  over  6,000,000  acres.2 

88.  Reclamation  of  common  swamp  lands.  —  The  adap- 
tation of  these  over-wet  areas  for  agriculture  has  brought 
forth  numerous  and  extensive  reclamation  projects.     For 
many  years  the  drainage  of  large  areas  of  flat  prairies,  by 
extensive  open  ditch  or  canal  systems,  has  been  in  progress 
in  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  other  prairie  states.     One  such  area 
in  Illinois  is  known  as  Vermilion  River    District.     Its 
main  ditch  is  10  miles  in  length,  70  feet  wide  at  bottom 
and  9  feet  deep.     In  most  cases  the  great  main  ditches  of 
these  prairie  drainage  enterprises  find  an  outlet  by  gravity 
into  some  natural  waterway,  such  as  a  stream  or  river, 
as  is  the  case  with  the  Vermilion  District.     In  some  cases, 
however,  dikes  must  be  built,  and  pumping  stations  pro- 
vided to  lift  the  water  out. 

1  See  Davis  on  Peat.  —  State  Dept.  of  Geology,  Mich. 

2  12th  Annual  Report  Director  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  p. 
319. 


62  LAND    DRAINAGE 

89.  Reclaiming  delta  lands.  —  These  lands  have  been 
built  up  and  are  still  being  added  to  by  the  great  rivers 
flowing  through  them.  They  are  very  low,  being  in  many 
cases  only  a  few  feet  above  sea  level.  They  are  lower 
than  the  banks  of  their  rivers  and  in  many  cases  lower 
than  the  surface  of  the  rivers  at  normal  flood.  Much  of 
the  surface  of  these  lands  is  under  water  all  the  year, 
and  in  some  cases  is  occupied  by  shallow  lakes.  The  soil 
is  very  deep  and  rich.  In  the  vicinity  of  New  Orleans, 
the  alluvial  deposits  are  said  to  reach  a  depth  of  2000 
feet.  In  some  parts  the  surface  is  covered  with  grass- 
like  growth,  in  others  by  great  forests  of  sycamore  timber. 

At  one  time  these  lands  were  considered  almost  worth- 
less for  agricultural  purposes,  and  thousands  of  acres 
were  purchased  at  a  price  as  low  as  12|  cents  an  acre. 
At  the  present  time  (1915),  values  have  advanced  to 
$10  to  $30  an  acre. 

Great  drainage  projects  are  already  in  operation,  and 
others  are  under  way.  The  method  is  to  inclose  a  tract 
of  this  land  by  dike,  in  getting  the  material  for  which  a 
ditch  of  considerable  size  is  excavated  inside  the  dike. 
The  ditch  therefore  encircles  the  tract.  The  area  to  be 
thus  diked  in  is  selected  abutting  a  natural  water  course, 
or  some  large  drainage  canal.  If  it  is  not  so  located,  it 
must  have  a  ditch  or  canal  dug  to  it.  The  ditch  encircling 
the  tract  is  given  a  fall  such  that  the  bottom  is  lowest  at 
some  point  adjacent  to  the  water  course  or  drainage  canal. 
Ditches  are  next  cut  across  the  tract  at  intervals  from  the 
encircling  ditch,  and  again  other  branches  are  dug  back 
from  these,  dividing  the  tract  in  units  of  forty  acres  or 
less.  All  the  ditches  have  such  fall  that  the  water  in 
them  will  gravitate  from  the  smaller  to  the  larger  and 
finally  to  the  lowest  point  in  the  encircling  ditch. 


HUMID   AREAS   AND    THEIR   RECLAMATION     63 


Upon  the  dike 
at  the  lowest  point 
in  the  encircling 
ditch  a  pumping 
plant  is  installed, 
with  a  capacity 
sufficient  to  lift 
over  the  dike  and 
deliver  into  the 
wrater  course  or 
outside  canal,  in 
twenty-four  hours, 
an  amount  of  water 
equal  to  1^  inches 
of  water  over  the 
whole  area  of  the 
tract. 

90.  Size  of  the 
unit .  —  These 
tracts  so  diked  in 
are  called  units, 
and  a  few  years 
ago  comprised 
about  1000  acres. 
At  this  time  the 
unit  is  consider- 
ably larger.  Fig. 
23  shows  a  unit 
containing  1760 
acres  in  process  of 
reclamation. 

On  February  13, 
1915,  the  pumps 


64  LAND   DRAINAGE 

were  put  in  operation  that  will  drain  a  tract  of  40,000 
acres  adjacent  to  and  including  a  part  of  the  city  of  New 
Orleans.  There  are  five  of  these  pumps  and  together 
they  are  said  to  lift  1,000,000  gallons  of  water  a  minute. 
Such  enterprises  as  this  are  but  the  children  of  those  in- 
augurated by  the  people  of  Holland  in  reclaiming  the 
lands  of  their  country  a  century  ago.  The  chief  differ- 
ence between  parent  and  child  lies  in  the  wonderfully 
greater  efficiency  of  the  centrifugal  pumps  now  used  as 
compared  with  those  used  by  the  Hollanders  at  the 
climax  of  their  work.  The  draining  of  Harlem  Lake  in 
Holland,  liberated  to  agriculture  over  44,000  acres  of 
land.  The  plans  for  the  enterprise  were  adopted  in 
1839 ;  the  dike  was  completed  in  1843 ;  the  actual  work 
of  pumping  began  in  May,  1849;  the  lake  was  dry  in 
July,  1852.  The  actual  pumping  time  was  nineteen  and 
one-half  months  and  the  actual  water  lifted  was  over 
900,000,000  tons.  The  ditches  were  completed  in  1856. 

91.  How  the  expense  of  installing,  operating  and  up- 
keep is  met.  —  When  the  reclaimed  delta  lands  are  sold 
to  farmers,  a  price  to  the  acre  is  charged  for  the  land, 
sufficient  to  cover  the  cost  of  installation.  The  ditching, 
diking,  and  the  cost  of  machinery  may  frequently  be  as 
low  as  $25  an  acre.  Additional  tile  draining  may  be 
found  necessary  later.  The  writer  has  seen  large  areas 
of  these  lands  functioning  perfectly  without  drains  other 
than  the  systems  above  described. 

When  a  party  purchases  any  number  of  acres  in  one 
of  these  reclaimed  units,  he  automatically  becomes  a 
stock-holder  in  the  drainage  plant  of  the  unit,  with  a 
vote  and  a  financial  responsibility  in  its  operation  pro- 
portional to  the  number  of  acres  he  owns  within  the 
unit. 


HUMID   AREAS  AND    THEIR   RECLAMATION     65 

92.  Reclaiming  the  swamp  lands  of  the  drift  regions. 

-  Minnesota  is  probably  leading  the  other  states  in  the 
reclamation  of  swamp  lands  of  drift  regions.  This  is  due, 
in  part  at  least,  to  the  peculiar  nature  of  its  drainage  laws, 
and  the  organization  of  her  drainage  commission.  Up  to 
the  present  time,  the  work  of  reclamation  has  consisted 
chiefly  in  the  construction  of  large  drainage  ditches  and 
in  the  straightening  and  deepening  of  the  natural  water- 
courses traversing  the  areas  requiring  draining. 

The  Michigan  system,  which  is  practically  a  county 
system,  proves  very  efficient  as  a  method  for  accomplish- 
ing district  drainage. 

93.  A  diked  farm  in  Michigan.  —  The  Owosso  Sugar 
Company's  farm,  located  eighteen  miles  south  of  Saginaw, 
Michigan,  is  peculiarly  situated  at  the  confluence  of  two 
considerable  sized  rivers,  and  for  this  reason,  and  because 
of  the  flatness  of  the  country,  if  unprotected,  would  be 
very  subject  to  overflow.     The  farm  consists  of  10,000 
acres,  and  is  now  inclosed  by  27  miles  of  dike,  with  en- 
circling ditch  outside  and  inside  the  dike.     This  dike 
ranges  from  8  to  20  feet  in  height,  and  from  this  fact 
alone  was  much  more  expensive  to  construct  than  the 
dikes  of  the  delta  regions.     The  first  "  unit  "  of  this  farm, 
opened  up,  consisted  of  4000  acres ;  and  to  drain  the  water 
from  it  to  one  corner,  75  miles  of  open  ditch  were  dug. 
The  four  pumps  used  in  lifting  the  drainage  water  over 
the  dike  from  this  4000  acres  have  a  capacity  of  40,000 
gallons  a  minute,  2,400,000  gallons  an  hour.     The  open 
ditches  divide  the  "  unit  "  into  40-acre  tracts. 

94.  Reclaiming  marine  marsh  lands.  —  The  work  of 
reclaiming  marine  marsh  lands,  up  to  the  present  time 
in  this  country,  has  been  accomplished  by  diking  out  the 
sea  and  digging  a  system  of  open  ditches.     Twenty-five 


66  LAND   DRAINAGE 

years  ago  the  drainage  waters  were  removed  by  gravity 
through  sluice  gates  in  the  dike  opened  at  low  tide.  The 
shrinkage  of  these  marine  marsh  soils  is  considerable,  and 
it  is  probably  only  a  matter  of  time  when  pumping  sys- 
tems for  removing  the  drainage  water  must  replace  the 
gravity  systems  already  installed.1  The  rate  at  which 
the  saline  materials  disappear  from  these  soils,  after  an 
effective  drainage  system  is  installed,  is  rapid.  Shaler 
says,  "  These  changes  will  spontaneously  take  place  in 
the  course  of  3  to  5  years  after  the  sea  is  excluded  from 
the  marsh,  but  by  breaking  up  the  surface  with  a  plow 
and  cutting  frequent  ditches  through  the  plain,  a  single 
year  will  often  suffice  to  bring  the  soil  into  the  state  where 
any  of  our  domesticated  plants  will  grow  upon  it."  2 

95.  Economic  oversights.  —  Where  large  areas  of  land 
are  wholly  or  largely  submerged  or  saturated,  the  necessity 
for  drainage  is  apparent,  and  effective  reclamation  methods 
are  applied.     The  land  is  thus  brought  at  once  to  a  rather 
high  degree  of  agricultural  efficiency.     But  there  are  at 
least  two  classes  of  soils  whose  service  is  partially  or 
wholly  lost  to  actual  crop  production. 

96.  Areas  of  imperfect  natural  drainage.  —  The  first 
class  includes  a  large  number  of  areas  of  soil,  ranging  in 
size  from  a  fraction  of  an  acre  to  many  acres,  which  are 
saturated   or   submerged   a   sufficient   period   each   year 
seriously  to  affect  the  physical  structure  of  the  soils,  and 
therefore  directly,  or  indirectly,  to  affect  all  their  other 
important  physical  conditions  —  temperature,  ventilation, 
and  capillary  moisture  capacity.     The    over-wet   condi- 
tions usually  occur  in  the  spring  and  thus  interfere  with 

1  Bulletin  240,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

2  Shaler,  12th  Report  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Part  1,  p.  321. 


HUMID   AREAS   AND    THEIR   RECLAMATION     67 

the  work  of  preparing  the  soil  for  the  crop.  The  labor 
of  preparation  is  usually  increased,  and  the  planting 
delayed.  The  results  of  the  delayed  seeding  and  the 
injured  physical  conditions  are:  (1)  reduced  yields  of 
crops;  (2)  increased  labor  in  handling  the  crops;  and 
(3)  again  increased  labor  in  the  later  preparation  of  the 
soil  for  succeeding  crops.  Instead  of  net  profits,  there 
are  realized  net  losses.  The  fact  that  these  soils  produce 
"  crops  "  is  the  chief  reason  why  their  owners  do  not  resort 
to  artificial  means  for  preventing  the  continued  presence 
of  saturating  water  in  them.  The  prevention  of  standing 
water  would  mean  net  profits  instead  of  net  losses  from  the 
crops  produced.  Elevation  is  not  always  a  factor  in  the 
natural  control  of  the  water  in  these  soils. 

97.  Small  wet  areas.  —  The  second  class  includes  a 
large  number  of  small  areas,  perennially  covered  or  filled 
with  water.  These  areas  comprise  small  shallow  ponds ; 
small  muck  lands,  sometimes  producing  cattails  only; 
small  springy  areas  sometimes  on  low  grounds,  and  some- 
times well  up  on  a  slope;  small  bog  lands  with  streams 
flowing  through  them.  Sometimes  one  or  more  of  these 
tracts  lie  within  a  cultivated  field,  interfering  with  practi- 
cally every  agricultural  operation  performed.  Sometimes 
they  lie  apart,  fenced  out  from  the  field.  Sometimes, 
when  they  are  fenced  out,  they  have  with  them  a  portion 
of  good  ground  set  off  in  squaring  up  the  field  from  which 
they  are  fenced.  Their  presence  (1)  means  waste,  direct 
or  indirect,  (2)  lessens  the  attractiveness  of  the  farm, 
(3)  lowers  its  value  an  acre,  and  (4)  may  prove  a  men- 
ace to  the  lives  of  the  animals  on  the  place,  and  the 
health  of  the  owner  and  his  family.  They  remain  un- 
drained  because  (1)  their  owners  become  used  to  them, 
(2)  of  their  small  area,  and  therefore  small  direct  value, 


68  LAND   DRAINAGE 

(3)  of  lack  of  understanding  how  to  undertake  the  work 
of  reclamation. 

98.  Proportion  of  waste  land.  —  It  is  not  possible,  with 
the  data  gathered  at  the  present  time,  to  estimate  the 
ratio  which  the  imperfectly  functioning  soils  of  the  first 
class,  or  which  the  negatively  functioning  soils  of  the  second 
class,  bears  to  the  total  arable  lands  of  the  country.  In 
some  parts  of  the  country,  it  is  very  large,  and  there  are 
few  portions  of  humid  regions  where  these  areas  are  not  in 
evidence.  The  economic  losses  due  to  their  presence  are 
not  appreciated.  Neither  are  the  ease  of  their  reclamation, 
nor  their  possibilities  in  crop  production,  when  so  re- 
claimed. It  is  the  existence  of  these  areas  and  the  economic 
losses  therefrom  that  have  prompted  the  preparation  of 
this  volume. 


CHAPTER  IV 
GENERAL  DRAINAGE  INFORMATION 

DRAINAGE  may  be  defined  as  any  artificial  means  by 
which  the  removal  of  surface  or  ground  water  is  hastened. 

Need  for  drainage  is  indicated  when  water  stands  at 
or  near  the  surface  of  the  soil  sufficiently  long  (1)  to 
interfere  with  farm  operations  in  the  way  of  tillage,  plant- 
ing or  harvesting,  or  (2)  to  render  the  soil  soggy  or  compact. 

A  discussion  is  hardly  necessary  to  enforce  the  impor- 
tance of  performing  every  operation  on  the  farm  with 
promptness  and  dispatch.  If  the  reader  has  followed 
carefully  the  discussion  of  the  relation  of  water  to  agricul- 
ture, as  set  forth  on  the  previous  pages,  he  will  understand 
why  soggy  or  compact  soils  are  undesirable. 

99.  Lands  requiring  drainage.  —  Lands  most  likely  to 
require  drainage  fall  under  one  or  more  of  the  following 
heads : 

1.  Low-lying  flat  areas,  and  especially  those  more  or 
less  surrounded  by  hills. 

2.  Higher  areas  of  open  soil  with  comparatively  slight 
slopes  and  underlaid  by  rather  impervious  subsoils. 

3.  Heavy  clay  soils,  even  though  they  have  apparently 
considerable  natural  surface  drainage,  but  more  especially 
when  the  surface  is  marked  by  slight  depressions  from 
which  the  water  cannot  drain  readily. 

4.  It   frequently   happens    that   in    regions    generally 
well  drained,  there  occur  small  areas  underlaid  by  nearly 

69 


70  LAND   DRAINAGE 

impervious  strata  of  clay  subsoil.  These*  areas  are  fre- 
quently well  up  on  the  sides  of  slopes,  and  not  infrequently 
on  the  top  of  the  highest  parts  of  fields.  Such  areas 
may  comprise  but  a  few  square  rods,  and  yet  so  persistently 
is  the  water  held  that  planting  is  delayed  and,  in  some 
cases,  actually  prevented.  Such  areas  are  very  common 
in  glacial  formations. 

,  5.  Springy  places  that  occur  at  the  foot  of  slopes  and 
not  infrequently  high  up  on  the  sides  of  slopes. 

100.  Methods  of  drainage.  —  The  method  to  be  em- 
ployed in  removing  surface  water  will  depend  on  a  number 
of  things,  such  as:    (1)  the  area  to  be  drained;    (2)  the 
nature   of  the   soil ;     (3)   topography ;     (4)   the   natural 
facilities  for  outlet ;  and  (5)  cost  of  labor  and  material. 

Three  methods  of  drainage  are  common.  They  are 
open  ditching,  shallow  surface  drainage  and  tile  drainage, 
to  which  may  be  added  a  fourth,  the  use  of  wells.  The 
latter  is  sometimes  employed  in  connection  with  tile 
draining. 

101.  Open  ditches.  —  Open  ditches  are  employed  in 
extensive  flat  countries  where  the  amount  of  water  to  be 
removed  is  large,  and  where  the  fall  is  slight.     In  such 
cases  the  ditches  are  often  of  considerable  width  and 
depth,  and  the  nature  of  the  work  in  laying  out  and 
developing  such  drainage  systems  is  such  as  to  require 
the   training   and   direction   of   a   professional   engineer. 
After  the  main  ditches  have  been  completed  in  such  sys- 
tems, it  is  possible  to  use  tile  drainage  in  the  smaller  units. 

102.  Shallow  open  ditches.  —  The  shallow,  open,  or 
surface  ditch  is  employed  where  the  soil  is  so  impervious 
as  to  prevent  the  ready  passage  of  the  water  downward  to 
drains  laid  at  ordinary  depths  in  tiling,  or  where  natural 
or  artificial  outlets  cannot  be  had,  or  in  new  sections  of 


GENERAL   DRAINAGE  INFORMATION  71 

the  country.  They  are  sometimes  used  in  conjunction 
with  tile  drains,  in  heavy  soils,  and  especially  where  the 
topography  is  such  as  to  bring  the  surface  drainage  into 
depressions  over  or  adjacent  to  main  tile  drains. 

103.  Tile   drainage.  —  On  most  upland   soils,   except 
in  extended  flat  areas  and  in  occasional  cases  of  impervious 
soils,  tile  drainage  may  be  employed  and  is  to  be  much 
preferred. 

TILE 

104.  Kinds  of  tile.  —  Two  general  kinds  of   tile  are 
found  on  the  market :   (1)   The  common  porous  clay  tile 
and  (2)  vitrified  tile.     Vitrified  tile,  when  glazed,  as  it 
is  sometimes,  is  often  designated  as  a  third  kind.     Drain 
tiles  are  made  in  lengths  of  12  inches  and  in  diameters 
ranging  from  2  inches  to  15  inches  or  more.     Tiles  less 
than  3  inches  in  diameter  are  seldom  used  in   modern 
drainage  practice.     Any  saving  in  cost  that  may  come 
from  using  2-inch  tile  is  more  than  counterbalanced  by  its 
lack  in  efficiency  as  compared  with  3-inch  tile. 

105.  Common   clay  tile.  —  The  ordinary  clay  tile   is 
made  of  the  same  material  and  in  much  the  same  way 
that  clay  brick  are  made,  and,  after  burning,  possesses 
much  the  same  texture  as  the  brick  made  of  the  same  clay. 
When  made  of  good  quality  of  clay  and  properly  burned, 
the  tile  is  very  durable,  and  after  sixty  to  seventy  years 
in  the  soil,  if  it  has  been  placed  below  the  frost  line,  shows 
no  evidences  of  deterioration.     If,  however,  the   tile  is 
placed  above  the  frost  line,  the  walls  are  likely  to  shale, 
and  in  a  very  short  time  to  collapse. 

106.  Vitrified  tile.  —  Vitrified  tile  differs  from  common 
tile  in  two  respects:   (1)  The  kind  and  quality  of  the 
material  and  (2)  the  degree  of  heat  to  which  it  is  sub- 


72  LAND  DRAINAGE 

jected  in  burning.  The  heat  is  sufficient  partially  to 
fuse  or  melt  the  material,  and  thus  to  render  the  walls 
stronger  and  much  more  impervious  to  water.  Vitrified 
tile,  like  other  kinds,  when  placed  above  the  frost  line, 
may  become  filled  with  water  which,  in  freezing,  expands 
and  shatters  them.  At  present,  vitrified  tile  is  made  not 
only  round,  as  is  the  common  clay  tile,  but  also  in  hex- 
agonal shape.  It  is  a  question  whether  hexagonal  shapes 
are  desirable,  for  reasons  which  will  appear  when  the 
discussion  of  the  laying  of  tile  is  taken  up.  Note  com- 
ments in  paragraph  109. 

107.  Cement  tile.  —  Within  the  past  few   years  the 
manufacture  of  cement  tile  has  become  common,  and 
numerous  machines  are  to  be  secured  on  the  market  for 
their  manufacture. 

108.  Difficulties   with   cement   tile.  —  While  much  is 
claimed  for  the  efficiency  and  durability  of  cement  tile, 
it  has  not  yet  been  proved  that  they  may  be  used  suc- 
cessfully even  on  upland  soils.     On  lowland  and  muck 
soils,  numerous  cases  have  been  observed  of  their  failure 
to  endure.     Several  instances  have  come  to  the  writer's 
attention  where,  within  three  months  after  laying  in  com- 
mon muck  soils,  the  cement  tile  were  found  to  have  seri- 
ously crumbled  and,  in  many  cases,  to  have  collapsed. 
This  may  have  been  due  to  improper  mixing.     It  did 
not  appear  to  be  due  to  a  lack  of  richness  in  cement.     The 
uniformity  with  which  cement  tile  in  muck  soil  crumbled 
on  the  upper  surface  seemed  to  indicate  that  the  crumbling 
was  not  a  mere  matter  of  accident,  but  rather  an  indication 
of  the  presence  of  a  solvent  in  the  downward  moving 
soil-water.     A  number  of  instances  are  reported  in  which 
cement  tile  have  shown  a  similar  crumbling  in  loam  and 
sandy  soils.     Patten  and  Musselman,  of  the  Michigan 


GENERAL   DRAINAGE   INFORMATION  73 

Station,  recently  issued  a  note  to  be  appended  to  Special 
Bulletin  59  of  that  station,  which  reads : 

"  Badly  disintegrated  tile  have  been  found  in  muck, 
sand  and  sandy  loam  soils.  We  have  found  no  satis- 
factory explanation  to  account  for  the  trouble,  as  yet, 
since  tile  showing  no  disintegration  have  been  found  in 
the  same  types  of  soil.  It  may  be  due  to  poor  construc- 
tion, insufficient  curing,  or  to  the  action  of  the  soil  and 
soil  solution  on  the  tile." 

Numerous  users  of  cement  tile,  who  enthusiastically 
champion  their  use,  base  their  opinion  upon  several  years 
of  experience.  Some  of  these  claim  even  to  have  used 
successfully  cement  tile  in  muck  and  bog  soils.  Elliott, 
in  "  Engineering  for  Farm  Drainage,"  page  125,  says : 
"  Abundant  examples  of  tile  now  in  service  prove  quite 
conclusively  that  well-made  cement  tile  meet  every  re- 
quirement in  drainage.  Any  failure  of  them  indicates 
imperfections  in  their  manufacture  which  need  not  have 
occurred  "  ;  and  again,  "  It  is  clear  that  first  class  Portland 
cement  and  good  sand  should  be  used  and  that  they  should 
be  properly  mixed." 

109.  Precautions.  —  The  maker  of  cement  tile  should 
observe  three  things :  (1)  to  use  only  clean,  sharp  sand 
with  the  cement  and  gravel;  (2)  to  use  a  mixture  of 
cement  not  more  lean  than  4  to  1 ;  and  (3)  to  exercise 
care  in  moistening,  tamping  or  packing.  Some  of  our  ex- 
periment stations  are  now  making  a  careful  study  of  the 
value  and  durability  of  cement  tile.  Elliott  says :  "  In 
order  to  obtain  a  dense,  non-porous  tile,  the  mixture  should 
be  wet,  as  opposed  to  what  is  known  as  'dry  mixture.' 
The  proportion  of  1  part  good  Portland  cement  to  3  parts 
good  sand,  well  mixed,  produces  a  good  tile."  1 

1  Engineering  for  Land  Drainage,  p.  125= 


74  LAND   DRAINAGE 

On  the  precautions  to  be  exercised  in  the  choice  of 
drain  tile,  Fippin  writes  as  follows : l 

"  The  preeminent  material  for  modern  land  drainage  is 
tile.  It  comes  in  different  shapes  and  quality.  By  a 
process  of  evolution  we  have  come  to  prefer  round  or 
hexagonal  tiles  because  they  are  easiest  to  lay  and  least 
likely  to  clog.  They  may  be  made  of  burned  clay  or  of 
concrete.  Clay  tile  may  be  either  vitrified  or  unverified. 
The  former  is  the  more  durable  because  its  walls  are  less 
porous.  The  difference  lies  in  the  quality  of  clay  used 
and  the  degree  of  heat  applied  in  burning.  Vitrification 
means  partial  melting  of  the  clay  particles,  which  run 
together  in  a  very  dense  mass.  A  low  degree  of  porosity 
coincident  with  a  moderate  degree  of  vitrification  is 
especially  desired  where  the  tile  is  likely  to  freeze.  In 
the  soil  the  pores  in  the  tile  become  filled  with  water, 
and  if  it  freezes  in  this  condition  the  walls  of  the  tile 
may  be  fractured  and  broken  up  into  scales.  If  even 
one  or  two  tiles  in  a  long  line  are  thus  destroyed,  the 
service  of  the  drain  is  jeopardized.  Since  vitrified  tile 
costs  no  more  on  the  average  than  soft  tile,  there  is  no 
excuse  for  taking  the  risk  in  using  the  soft  tile.  The 
drainage  efficiency  of  the  tile  is  not  affected  by  the  dif- 
ference in  the  porosity  of  the  walls,  since  the  water  enters 
at  the  joints. 

"  Cement  tile  that  are  of  fairly  good  quality  may  be 
made  by  hand  or  in  machines.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
they  can  be  made  as  durable  as  the  best  clay  tile.  They 
should  be  carefully  made  of  a  rich  mixture.  Sand  that  is  a 
little  loamy  improves  the  quality,  if  the  mixing  is  thorough, 
as  it  reduces  the  amount  of  pore  space.  Whether  cement 
tile  can  be  made  at  prices  to  compete  with  clay  tile  depends 
1  Cornell  Reading-Courses,  iv.  No.  78  (1914). 


GENERAL   DRAINAGE   INFORMATION  75 

on  the  size  made  and  on  the  local  situation  in  labor  and 
materials  for  the  two  kinds  of  tile. 

"  Only  sound  tile  giving  a  true  ring  should  be  put  in 
the  ground.  The  ends  should  be  reasonably  square  and 
smooth,  so  that  a  good  joint  can  be  made.  This  is  most 
important  when  laying  tile  in  soil  of  a  quicksand  nature. 
Here  special  precautions  against  clogging  are  necessary." 

110.  How  water  enters  the  tile.  —  There  is  only  one 
way,  in  the  case  of  glazed  tile,  for  water  to  enter  and  that, 
of  course,  is  by  way  of  the  joints. 

In  the  case  of  porous  tile,  in  all  but  the  heavier  soils, 
the  greater  part  of  the  water  enters  by  way  of  the  joints ; 
this  is  probably  true  even  in  the  case  of  the  heavy  soils. 

In  the  Soils  Laboratory  of  the  Michigan  Agricultural 
College,  very  careful  tests  showed  that  in  the  case  of 
common  6-inch  tile,  laid  4  rods  apart,  the  rate  at  which 
water  entered  through  the  walls  was  2  tons  to  the  acre  in 
30  hours,  while  in  the  case  of  4-inch  tile,  laid  in  the  same 
way,  the  rate  was  1.55  tons  in  30  hours.  A  4-inch  tile, 
of  apparently  more  porous  type,  laid  in  the  same  way, 
permitted  water  to  flow  through  the  walls  at  the  rate  of 
1.66  tons  to  the  acre  in  30  hours. 

In  the  case  of  most  cement  tile,  as  they  are  commonly 
made,  water  passed  through  the  walls  with  great  readiness. 
Cement  tile  was  also  used  in  the  tests  referred  to  above, 
and  water  was  found  to  enter  through  the  wall  of  4-inch 
cement  tile,  laid  in  the  same  manner  and  under  the  same 
conditions  as  the  common  tile,  at  the  rate  of  1224  tons  to 
the  acre  in  30  hours.  This  is  equivalent  to  over  8.6  acre 
inches  in  24  hours.1  The  readiness  with  which  water 
passes  through  the  walls  of  the  cement  tile,  as  ordinarily 

1  Special  Bulletin  56,  Mich.  Agr.  College  Experiment  Station, 
p.  5. 


76  LAND   DRAINAGE 

made,  may  be  easily  observed  if  one  will  hold  a  tile  so  that 
one  can  see  along  the  inner  surface  and  then  slowly  pour 
water  upon  the  upper  outer  surface.  It  requires  but  a 
few  seconds  for  the  water  to  pass  through  and  hang  in 
large  drops  on  the  inside  of  the  tile.  In  heavy  soils,  a 
tile  possessing  the  porosity  of  the  cement  is  greatly  to  be 
desired.  Undoubtedly  Elliott  would  disapprove  of  the 
use  of  cement  tile  of  so  open  structure. 

111.  Tile  systems.  —  In  the  draining  of  a  piece  of  land, 
there  are  several  things  that  should  be  carefully  considered. 
It  may  be  that  a  single  line  of  tile  will  be  sufficient  to  re- 
move the  surplus  water  from  the  area  to  be  drained.  This 
is  likely  to  be  the  case  if  the  area  is  not  over  100  to  150 
feet  wide,  provided  the  soil  is  relatively  open.  If  the 
width  is  greater  than  150  feet,  or  if  it  is  as  little  as  100 
feet,  with  a  relatively  impervious  soil,  it  is  probable  that 
more  than  one  line  of  tile  will  be  required.  If  the  one  line 
is  not  sufficient,  then  a  system  should  be  introduced,  the 
style  of  which  will  depend  upon  the  surface  and  shape  of 
the  area  and,  possibly,  on  the  notion  of  the  one  who  is 
installing  the  system. 

Two  general  systems  employed  in  tile  drainage  are  illus- 
trated in  Figs.  24,  25,  26.  All  kinds  of  combinations  of 
these  are  found  in  actual  practice.  (See  Figs.  27,  28,  and 
29.)  In  any  system  of  tile,  that  line  which  receives  the 
water  from  all  the  other  parts  of  the  system  is  called  the 
main,  and  all  the  lines  receiving  the  water  directly  from  the 
soil  and  conveying  it  to  a  main  are  called  laterals.  If 
there  should  be  more  than  one  system  of  laterals,  each 
system  flowing  into  another  line  than  the  main,  which  in 
turn  carries  the  water  to  the  main,  each  of  these  lines 
is  called  a  sub-main.  Figures  27  and  28  illustrate  this 
point. 


* 

A 

41 

* 
A 

4* 

A 

* 
*. 

^ 

jfc. 

0* 

gk 

«ai 

4 

4± 

4*. 

41 

41 

^ 

4- 

+. 

* 

^ 

<A 

,£ 

A 

^ 

^ 

A 

4* 

^ 

4 

-di. 

JL 

4 

^S^ 

J 

* 

X. 

4* 

* 

«*. 

«* 

/^ 

FIG.  24.  —  A  system  of  parallel  drains. 


FIG.  25.  —  A  system  comprising  a  main,  and  laterals  approaching 
obliquely. 


* 


A- 


A 


A 


* 


FIG.  26.  —  A  system  in  which  the  laterals  are  laid  at  right  angles  to  the 

main. 


80 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


112.  Outlet. —The  point  at 
which  the  main  discharges  its 
water  is  called  the  outlet.     The 
efficiency  of  a  tile  system  and  the 
expense  of  installing  will  depend 
very  much  on  the  location  and 
construction  of  the  outlet.     The 
outlet  may  discharge  its  water 
into  any  natural  water-way  or 
stream,  ravine  or  drainage  ditch. 
Generally  it  should  be  so  located 
that     the     main    shall    extend 
through  the  lowest  portion  of 
the  area  to  be  drained,  and  so 
that  it  may  be  placed  with  the 
least   amount    of    digging    and 
have  the  fewest  possible  angles 
in  its  course.    This  outlet  should 
be  so  situated  that  the  ordinary 
outside  water  should  not  stand 
as  high  as  the  bottom  of  the  tile. 

113.  Depth  of  tile  drain.  — It 
is  desirable  that  tile  drains  shall 
lie,  generally,  not  less  than  three 
feet  below  the  surface.     Occa- 
sionally  a  farmer   is   met  who 
believes  that  tile  drains  should 
be  laid  as   deep   as   four   feet. 
Waring  favored  a  depth  of  four 
feet.     According    to    Elliott,    4 
to  4J   feet   is   deep,    3    feet  is 

FIG.   27. —  A  combination   of  the  sys- 
tems shown  in  Figs.  24  and  25. 


GENERAL   DRAINAGE   INFORMATION 


81 


FIG.  28.  —  A  system  which  has  been  in  operation  for  a  number  of  years. 
It  conforms  in  plan  and  efficiency  to  the  requirements  of  the  to- 
pography of  the  field.  The  north  section,  after  having  been  in 
service  some  15  years,  was  lowered  two  feet  because  of  the  lowering 
of  the  surface  from  shrinkage  from  various  causes. 


82 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


FIG.  29.  —  A  system  which  has  been  developed  solely  by  the  require- 
ments of  the  field.  Originally,  the  system  comprised  only  that  part 
occupying  the  marsh  area  in  the  southwest  corner  of  the  field. 
Later,  the  branches  running  into  the  east  end  of  the  field  were 
laid.  Next,  the  small  branch  leading  to  the  small  marsh  area  in 
the  upper  central  part  of  the  field ;  and  this  later  was  extended  into 
the  marsh  area  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner. 


GENERAL   DRAINAGE  INFORMATION  83 

medium  and  2  to  2-^  is  shallow.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  in  fields  with  uneven  surfaces,  or  where  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  get  the  proper  amount  of  fall,  the  tile  must  be 
laid  in  places  as  close  to  the  surface  as  18  inches.  Tile 
placed  too  near  the  surface  are  subject  to  freezing,  and 
freezing  is  almost  sure  to  result  in  the  cracking  of  the 
tile,  or  in  causing  it  to  shale,  which  is  likely  to  result 
in  its  complete  collapse.  A  depth  of  less  than  3  feet 
fails  to  give  to  the  roots  of  most  crops  a  sufficient 
amount  of  room  for  development  and  forage.  Greater 
depth  than  3  feet  increases  the  effectiveness  of  drainage. 
The  champions  of  deep  laying  of  tile  offer  three  reasons 
for  the  practice :  (1)  root  room,  (2)  capillary  water  sup- 
ply, (3)  food  development. 

114.  The  distance  apart  of  tile  drains.  —  There  is  a 
rather  close  relation  between  the  depths  to  which  the 
tile  are  laid  and  the  distance  that  may  exist  between  tile 
lines.  Other  things  being  equal,  according  to  common 
theory,  the  deeper  the  drains  are  placed,  the  greater  the 
distance  that  may  lie  between  them,  and  vice  versa.  The 
largest  factor,  however,  in  determining  the  distance  apart 
of  drain  lines  is  the  character  of  the  soil. 

In  very  heavy  clays,  it  may  be  necessary  to  place  tile 
drains  not  over  30  feet  apart,  while  in  very  open  soils  they 
may  be  placed  as  far  as  150  to  200  feet  or  more  apart.  In 
muck  soils  they  may  be  placed  from  60  to  80  feet  apart, 
and  in  ordinary  loams  70  to  100  feet.  Eighty-five  feet 
apart  is  probably  a  fair  average. 

Where  soil  is  underlaid  with  a  heavier  subsoil,  lying 
so  near  the  surface  that  the  tile  must  be  set  down  into  it, 
the  drains  must  be  placed  closer  together  than  would  be 
necessary  if  the  subsoil  more  nearly  resembled  the  soil 
above  in  openness.  (See  Fig.  30.) 


84                                LAND   DRAINAGE 

\A  \  "~1 

a 

115.   How    water    approaches 

s 

the  tile  drains.  —  In  approaching 

'  "^ 

X5 
>>  d 

drains,    the    ground    water    un- 

Jfl 

11 

doubtedly  moves  in  such  a  way 

/  i\ 

11 

as  to  reach  the  drain  by  lines  of 

('  / 

rSg 

least  resistance.     When  a  heavy 

/ 

•^  o 

<D  ^ 

soil  is  underlaid  by  a  porous  or 

/  / 

1+3  ^2 
**H  n3 

sandy  soil  at  or  near  the  plane 

1   /   < 

O    o 

of  the  tile,  the  water  will  meet 

r  r  r 

15 

less  resistance  by  following  paths 

i 

II 

indicated  by  the  arrows  in  Fig. 

i  \ 

'o! 

31.     If,  however,  the  heavy  soil 

\  \ 

^2 

extended  a  foot  or  more  below 

v  \\ 

^J 

the  plane  of  the  tile,  the  water 

!XM 

II 

would  undoubtedly  move  toward 

j§  jj 

the  tile  in  lines  much  more  direct. 

"     "        Of 

02     ^ 

Water   will    not    enter    a   tile 

Svi 

II 

when  no  part  of  the  surface  of 

''     /   ' 

its  zone  of  saturation  lies  higher 

/     /!  / 

0)     W 

o3    f-i 

than  the  bottom  of  the  tile.     In 

/                / 

other  words,  water  will  not  enter 

I 

|w 

a  tile  drain  except  by  its   own 

i        \\ 
L>       Ijisx 

1  i 

gravity  or  when   forced   toward 

*  \h    p 

?<*• 

the  drain  by  some  pressure  ex- 

V  I 

*>»  » 

terior  to  itself. 

1  \  '' 

ei 

116.   Size    of   tile    to    use.  - 

|° 

Ordinary  drain  tile  ranges  in  size 

\      \  \ 

d°  S 

from  2  inches  in  diameter  up  to 

\vv  \l 

0  J 

12    and    even    15    inches.     The 

^^ 

^  "o 

capacity  of  different  sizes  of  tile 

''/* 

'.  ^ 

to  carry  water,  with  rate  of  flow 

^  /  1 

s 

constant,  varies  as  to  the  square 

/    /  1      J 

d 

£ 

of  their  diameters.     The  square 

GENERAL   DRAINAGE  INFORMATION 


85 


of  the  diameter  is  the  product 
of  the  diameter  multiplied  by 
itself.  When  water  in  them  has 
the  same  rate  of  flow,  3-ineh 
tile  will  carry  2  J  times  as  much 
water,  as  will  2-inch  tile.  To 
illustrate :  3X3  =  9,  2X2  =  4; 
9  is  2j  times  4;  2j  represents 
the  relation  of  the  amount  of 
water  that  will  flow  through 
3-inch  tile  as  compared  with  the 
amount  of  water  that  will  flow 
through  2-inch  tile  when  they 
have  the  same  fall.  A  5-inch 
tile  will  carry  1^  times  as  much 
water  at  the  same  rate  of  flow 
as  a  4-inch  tile.  To  illustrate 
again :  the  square  of  5  is  25, 
the  square  of  4  is  16,  25  divided 
by  16  equals  1^-. 

The  size  of  tile  to  be  used  in 
any  instance  will  depend  on  the 
area  from  which  it  is  to  carry 
water,  and  whether  it  is  to  carry 
away  only  the  excess  of  water 
due  to  rainfall  on  the  area,  or 
whether  there  is  added  other 
water  brought  in  by  springs,  or 
surface  drainage,  or  seepage 
from  adjacent  areas. 

It  is  hardly  advisable  to  use 
tile  so  small  as  2  inches  in 
diameter.  The  following  gen- 


*:***3BSB 
•**:.••  *AaB 


ft,'1 

»!!M 


if 

fefcsfc< 


;»,s-M^i/ 

>''*vM^fti 

••Vv<Kn^K( 


»;>v?* 

;:.v».;s 

^;p 

i\^/wS< 


il 

^: 

I 


fc 

i 


86 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


eral  statements  are  quoted  from  C.  G.  Elliott,  recognized 
as  one  of  the  foremost  drainage  engineers  in  this  country. 
These  statements  apply  to  average  conditions  : 

"  When  drains  are  laid  so  that  there  shall  be  a  fall  of  3 
inches  in  100  feet,  a  3-inch  tile  will  drain  5  acres,  and 
should  not  be  of  greater  length  than  1000  feet. 


TABLE   VI 

RELATION  OF  SIZE  OF  TILE  AND  FALL  TO  CAPACITY  TO  CONVEY 

WATER 


WITH  A  FALL  OP 

3" 

2" 

1" 

A  4-inch  tile  will  drain     .... 

14.5  A. 

12.8  A. 

11 

A. 

A  5-inch  tile  will  drain     .... 

25      A. 

22      A. 

19 

A. 

A  6-inch  tile  will  drain     .... 

39.6  A. 

34.8  A. 

30.0 

A. 

A  7-inch  tile  will  drain     .... 

58      A. 

51      A. 

44 

A. 

An  8-inch  tile  will  drain   .... 

80      A. 

71      A. 

61 

A. 

"  These  are  maximum  capacities  where  the  drain  does 
not  exceed  1000  feet  in  length. 

"  A  long  drain  has  a  less  carrying  capacity  than  a  short 
drain  of  the  same  size  laid  upon  the  same  grade." 

It  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  if  a  long  drain  is  to  be  laid, 
and  especially  if  this  drain  is  a  main  receiving  water  from 
laterals  or  other  sub-mains,  it  will  be  necessary,  from  time 
to  time,  to  increase  the  size  of  the  tile  laid  as  the  drain 
approaches  the  outlet.  Fig.  32  illustrates  this  point. 

By  giving  careful  attention  to  the  capacity  of  the 
various  sizes,  it  is  possible  to  exercise  considerable  economy 
in  the  use  of  tile  laid  in  any  system. 

The  tendency  of  the  day,  according  to  Fippin,  is  to 
increase  rather  than  decrease  the  minimum  size  of  the 


GENERAL 

DRAINAGE   INFORMATIO 

FIG.  32.  —  To  illustrate  Table  VI.  The  726-foot  section  of  8-inch  tile  has  a  capacity  sufficient  to  carry  the  water 
delivered  by  its  own  laterals  and  also  that  delivered  from  the  field  above.  The  594-foot  section  of  7-inch 
tile  has  a  capacity  sufficient  to  carry  the  water  delivered  by  its  own  laterals  and  that  delivered  to  it  from  the 
remaining  portions  of  the  58  acres  above.  A  part  of  the  825-foot  section  of  5-inch  tile  might  have  been  ^ 
laid  in  4-inch.  4-inch  tile  is  sometimes  used  for  mains.  -<I 

5? 

3    *^ 
J    * 

1 

<; 

i 

<r>     f 

I 

. 

5 

) 

! 

0 

rS 

1 

"1 

Q 

J 

1 

—  ! 
( 

^ 

•i 

c 

j 

3 

c 

5 

1 

* 

^ 

O 

.cE 

o 

fc 

1    ' 

§ 

88  LAND   DRAINAGE 

tile  used.  "  From  the  minimum  size  the  tile  will  increase 
in  size  according  to  the  extent  of  the  system.  It  is  now 
not  uncommon  for  tile  as  large  as  two  feet  in  diameter  to 
be  used.  Three-inch  tile  in  lines  not  more  than  six 
hundred  feet  long  are  usually  best  for  lateral  drains. 
For  drains  up  to  fifteen  hundred  feet  in  length,  four-inch 
tile  may  be  used,  provided  the  grade  is  not  less  than  four 
inches  per  hundred  feet.  It  is  difficult  to  make  an  exact 
statement  concerning  the  proper  size  of  main  drains.  In 
general  they  should  be  capable  of  removing  one-fourth  of 
an  inch  of  water  from  the  drainage  area  in  twenty-four 
hours." 

117.  Grade  or  fall.  —  Every  line  of  tile  should  be  so 
laid  that  there  is  a  gradual  fall  from  the  extreme  end  of 
the  drain  to  the  outlet.     This  fall  is  usually  spoken  of 
as  the  grade.     It  is  desirable,  when  possible,  to  have  a 
fall  of  as  much  as  3  inches  in  every  100  feet.     A  carefully 
constructed  line  of  tile  will  work  successfully  on  a  much 
less  fall  than  this.     Two  inches  is  a  common  grade,  and 
in  very  flat  areas  a  fall  as  slight  as  1  inch  to  the  hundred 
feet  is  used ;  and  occasionally  a  fall  of  \  inch  to  the  hun- 
dred feet  for  tile  as  large  as  8  inches. 

118.  Relation  of  size  of  tile  to  the  grade.  —  The  less 
the  fall,  the  greater  must  be  the  care  exercised  in  laying 
the  tile,  and  the  less  will  be  its  capacity  to  remove  the 
water  and  therefore  the  larger  must  be  the  tile.     Elliott 
says :  "  If  we  double  the  grade  per  hundred  feet  of  the 
drain  we  increase  its  carrying  capacity  about  one-third." 
If  this  be  true,  then  if  we  lower  the  grade  by  half  we 
should  decrease  the  carrying  capacity  by  one-fourth. 

The  following  figures,  from  Fippin,  give  some  idea  of  the 
area  of  land  drained  by  some  common  sizes  of  tile  when 
laid  at  different  grades  : 


GENERAL   DRAINAGE   INFORMATION 


TABLE   VII 


89 


NUMBER  OF  ACRES  FROM  WHICH  ONE  FOURTH  INCH  OF  WATER 
WILL  BE  REMOVED  IN  TWENTY-FOUR  HOURS  BY  OUTLET 
TILE  DRAINS  OF  DIFFERENT  DIAMETERS  AND  DIFFERENT 
LENGTHS  WITH  DIFFERENT  GRADES 


DIAME- 
TER OP 
TILE  IN 
INCHES 

GRADE  IN  INCHES  PER  100  FEET 

1 

2 

3 

6 

9 

Length  of  drain  in  feet 

1,000  |  2,000 

1,000 

2,000 

1,000 

2,000 

1,000 

2,000 

1,000 

2,000 

Acres  of  land  drained  by  different  sizes  of  tile 

5  .    . 
6  .     . 

7  .     . 

19.1 
29.9 
44.1 

15.7 

24.8 
36.4 

22.1 
34.8 
31.1 

19.4 
30.5 

44.8 

25.1 
39.6 
58.0 

22.7 
35.9 

52.8 

32.0 
30.5 
74.0 

30.3 

47.8 
70.1 

37.7 
59.4 

87.1 

36.3 
57.3 
84.1 

8  .     . 
9  .     . 
10  .    . 

61.4 

82.2 
106.7 

50.7 
68.1 
88.5 

71.2 
95.3 
123.9 

62.6 
83.8 
108.9 

80.9 
108.4 
140.6 

73.6 
89.6 
128.1 

103.3 
138.1 
179.2 

98.0 
131.3 
170.5 

121.4 
162.6 
211.1 

117.3 
157.1 
204.4 

119.  Uniformity  of  grade.  —  It  is  desirable  to  have  the 
grade  uniform  throughout  the  length  of  each  line  of  tile. 
This  is  not  always  possible  for  reasons  which  will  appear 
later.  When  changes  in  grade  must  be  made,  it  is  still 
desirable  to  make  them  as  few  as  possible,  and  to  keep 
the  grade  uniform  in  as  large  sections  as  possible. 

There  is  no  objection  whatever  to  changing  the  grade 
from  any  rate  of  fall  to  a  greater  grade,  but  care  must  be 
observed.  The  water  moving  through  the  drain  carries 
with  it  more  or  less  fine  material  which  has  worked  its 
way  through  the  joints  of  the  tile.  This  material  is  spoken 
of  as  silt.  The  particles  of  silt  are  sometimes  so  large  as 
to  be  moved  but  slowly  by  the  running  water  in  the  tile  — 
so  slowly  indeed  that  if  the  rate  of  flow  of  the  water  should 
be  decreased  by  ever  so  little,  its  force  will  then  be  insuffi- 


90 


LAND    DRAINAGE 


cient  to  continue  to  move  the  particles.  If,  then,  in  a  line 
of  tile  the  fall  were  lessened  at  some  point,  it  might  happen 
that  considerable  quantities  of  this  silt  would  accumulate 
at  the  point  of  change.  Sometimes  this  happens  to  the 


FIG.  33.  —  Silt-basin  built  of  brick. 

extent  that  the  tile  is  clogged.     Means  should  be  pro- 
vided, therefore,  to  prevent  such  a  contingency. 

120.  Silt-basins.  —  To  prevent  the  clogging  of  tiles 
by  the  accumulation  of  silt,  chambers  or  openings,  such 
as  are  illustrated  by  Figs.  33,  34,  and  35,  are  established 
at  intervals  along  the  tile  drain.  They  are  commonly 
called  silt-basins.  These  are  placed  wherever  in  a  line 
of  tile  the  grade  is  changed  from  a  higher  to  a  lower 
rate  of  fall,  and  especially  where  it  is  evident  that  the 


GENERAL   DRAINAGE   INFORMATION 


91 


movement  of  the  water  below  the  point  of  change  is  likely 
to  be  so  slow  as  to  find  difficulty  in  moving  the  particles 
of  silt.  They  are  also  placed  where  a  sub-main  unites 
with  a  main,  and  where  a  long  lateral  unites  with  a  main 


FIG.  34.  —  Silt-basin  of  concrete  and  sewer  tile. 

or  a  sub-main,  and  at  intervals  along  any  considerable 
line  of  tile,  whether  it  is  lateral,  sub-main,  or  main.  In 
the  last  named  case,  the  purpose  is  not  only  to  gather 
the  silt  moving  down  the  line,  but  also  as  a  provision  for 
examining  the  condition  of  the  tile  drain.  By  such  a 
distribution  of  silt-basins,  the  line  or  system  is  divided 
into  units,  and  if  a  mishap,  resulting  in  the  clogging  of 
any  portion  of  the  system,  occurs,  the  unit  in  which  it  is 
located  can  usually  be  established  by  examining  the  silt- 


92 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


basins  and  noting  the  flow  of  the  water  into  and  out  from 
them. 

121.  How  the  silt-basin  performs  its  work.  —  The 
bottom  of  the  silt-basin  should  stand  at  least  a  foot 
below  the  lower  edge  of  the  tile  running  from  the  basin. 


FIG.  35.  —  Silt-basin  built  of  concrete. 

The  basin  should  be  at  least  12  inches  in  diameter  or  18 
to  24  inches  for  large  tile.  As  the  water  enters  the  silt- 
basin  from  the  tile,  its  velocity  is  suddenly  decreased  and 
its  capacity  to  carry  silt  is  thus  reduced.  Therefore 
most  of  the  silt  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  silt  basin  as 
the  water  passes  through  and  into  the  out-leading  tile. 
When  the  silt  has  accumulated  sufficiently  in  the  bottom 
of  the  silt  basin,  it  may  be  removed  with  a  shovel  or  hoe. 


GENERAL   DRAINAGE   INFORMATION  93 

122.  The  construction  of  a  silt-basin.  —  A  very  com- 
mon method  of  constructing  a  silt-basin  is  to  dig  an  open- 
ing to  a  depth  of  at  least  12  inches  below  the  bottom  of  the 
outgoing  tile,  and  from  20  to  30  inches  in  diameter,  de- 
pending on  the  size  of  the  tile  leading  into  and  from  the 
basin.     This  opening  is  then  walled  or  curbed  with  com- 
mon brick  to  the  top  of  the  ground.     (See  Fig.  33.)     Some- 
times the  opening  is  walled  with  brick  to  just  above  the 
top  of  the  tile  and  then  a  piece  of  sewer  pipe  of  sufficient 
diameter  is  placed  on  end  upon  the  brick.     Cement  may 
be  used  in  place  of  the  brick.      (See  Fig.  34.)      In  re- 
gions where  stone,  and  especially  flat  stone,  is  abundant, 
this  material  is  much  used  in  building  walls  of  silt-basins. 

In  these  days  of  cement,  a  very  simple  method  of  con- 
structing a  silt-basin  is  to  dig  an  opening  of  proper  size 
and  then  build  in  a  wooden  form,  and  fill  the  space  between 
the  form  and  the  walls  of  the  opening  with  a  mixture  of 
one  part  of  cement  to  five  or  six  of  sandy  gravel.  (See 
Fig.  35.) 

123.  Finishing  the   silt-basin.  —  In  most  cases,   it  is 
desirable  to  carry  the  basin  wall  to  a  few  inches  above 
ground.     Sometimes,  however,  where  the  field  is  culti- 
vated, the  top  of  the  wall  is  stopped  at  12  inches  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.    A  heavy  covering  is  then  placed 
on  the  top  of  the  wall  and  the  soil  is  filled  in  above  it.     In 
this  case  it  is  necessary  to  use  some  special  means  for 
locating  the  silt-basin. 

Where  the  wall  is  brought  to  or  above  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  it  should  have  placed  upon  it  a  substantial 
cover  of  wood,  concrete,  or  iron.  Iron  gratings  are  used 
when  it  is  desired  to  remove  surface  water  by  way  of 
the  tile  drains  (see  paragraph  208). 


CHAPTER  V 
LEVELING 

LEVELING  is  a  process  by  which  the  heights  or  elevations 
of  definite  points  in  a  line  or  in  an  area  above  an  arbitrarily 
adopted  plane  are  determined.  This  is  called  the  datum 
plane,  and  is  usually  so  located  as  to  lie  lower  than  the 
lowest  point  whose  elevation  is  sought.  In  the  ordinary 
practice  of  leveling,  for  drainage  purposes,  this  plane  is 
so  established  that  the  point  at  which  the  leveling  begins 
lies  just  10  feet  above  it,  —  "  10  feet  above  datum." 

It  will  be  seen  that  if  the  datum  plane  is  itself  level, 
and  if  the  height  of  each  point  is  determined,  in  a  line  or 
in  an  area,  above  the  datum  plane,  it  is  then  an  easy  matter 
to  determine  the  difference  in  elevation  between  any  point 
and  any  other  point,  or  to  determine  the  fall  between 
any  two  points. 

124.  The  level.  —  The  level  shown  in  Fig.  36  con- 
sists of  a  telescope  mounted  on  a  spindle,  which  is  in 
turn  mounted  on  a  tripod.  The  telescope  carries  a  spirit 
level  which  is  so  carefully  adjusted  that  when  the  bubble 
stands  in  the  center  the  telescope  stands  level  for  that 
direction.  When  the  tripod  is  set,  the  spindle  can  be  ad- 
justed so  that  the  telescope  swinging  upon  the  spindle  is 
always  level. 

As  one  looks  through  the  telescope,  one  sees  apparently 
near  the  far  end  two  lines  —  one  horizontal  and  the  other 
perpendicular  —  crossing  each  other  at  the  center  of  the 

94 


LEVELING  95 

opening.  These  lines  are  called  the  cross-hairs.  When 
the  telescope  stands  level,  i.e.,  when  the  level  attached 
to  the  telescope  indicates  level : 

1.   A  line  passing  from  the  eye  of  the  observer  through 
the  small  opening  through  which  he  looks,  and  through 


FIG.  36.  —  Level  commonly  used  in  drainage  work.  A,  telescope;  B, 
spindle;  C,  spirit  level;  D,  eye-piece;  E,  leveling  head;  F,  ratchet 
to  adjust  objective  ;  O,  objective  ;  S,  leveling  screws. 

the  horizontal  cross-hair,  is  also  level  and  is  parallel  to 
the  datum  plane. 

2.  The  distance  of  the  horizontal  cross-hair  above  the 
datum  plane  is  called  also  the  height  of  the  instrument. 

3.  Every  point  that  falls  directly  back  of,  or  behind  the 
horizontal  cross-hair,  as  the  observer  looks  through  the 


96  LAND   DRAINAGE 

telescope,  is  the  same  height  above  the  datum  plane  as  is 
the  instrument. 

125.  Cheaper  levels.  —  The  instrument  shown  in  Fig. 
36  is  rather  expensive  for  one  who  has  only  a  limited 
amount  of  draining.  A  number  of  cheaper  levels,  also 


FIG.  37.  —  Cheaper  forms  of  drainage  or  grade  levels.     Reading  from 
left  to  right,  Gurley,  Jackson,  Queen. 

called  drainage  levels,  can  be  secured.  Some  of  these 
are  also  called  grade  levels.  They  are  not  as  accurately 
made  as  the  more  expensive  instrument,  but  they  are 
sufficiently  accurate  for  use  where  there  is  a  fair  fall,  or 
grade,  and  for  others  than  professional  drainage  engineers. 
Three  such  levels  are  shown  in  Fig.  37. 


LEVELING 


97 


FIG.  38.  —  Leveling  rods,  a  and  6,  two  views  of  an 
architect's  rod.  c,  view  of  a  cheap  rod  accom- 
panying the  Jackson  level. 


126.  Leveling  rods.  —  With  the  level  there  should  be 
a  leveling  rod.     Figure  38  shows  two  such 

rods ;  one  (a)  is  known  as  the  sliding  rod. 
It  is  catalogued  as  an  architect's  rod.  It 
consists  of  two  parts,  each  in  this  case  5^ 
feet  long,  fitted  together  and  clamped  in 
such  a  way  that  the  parts  may  be  extended 
to  form  a  rod  10  feet  long.  A  rod  like  a 
is  shown  extended  in  b.  The  other  rod 
c,  a  simple  affair,  consists  of  a  single 
piece  f  inch  by  If  inches  by  8  feet  long. 
These  rods  are  graduated  to  feet,  yV  foot 
and  I^-Q  foot.  Rods  are  sometimes  gradu- 
ated to  feet,  inches,  and  fractions  of  an 
inch.  Figure  39  shows  a  standard  drain- 
age engineer's  leveling  rod. 

Sometimes  the  face  of  the  rod  is  spaced 
or  blocked  in  colors,  the  spaces  or  blocks 
representing  fractions  of  a  foot,  so  that 
the  graduated  face  can  be  read  at  a  dis- 
tance and  especially  through  the  telescope 
of  the  level.  The  face  of  one  rod  in  Fig. 
38  shows  this  spacing. 

127.  Target.  —  Each  of  the  rods  shown 
in  Figs.   38  and  39  is  equipped  with  a 
target.      The   target   is   a   circular   plate 
divided  into  quarters  by  a  horizontal  and 
a    perpendicular   line,    and    the    quarters 
painted   red   and  white   as   shown.     The 
target  is  constructed  to  slide  up  and  down 


98 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


gineer's  leveling  rod. 


in  grooves  on  the  rod,  or  upon 
guides,  and  is  fitted  with  a  clamp- 
ing screw.  The  target  is  open  in 
the  center  to  expose  a  portion  of 
the  face  of  the  rod.  (See  Fig.  40.) 

128.  Using  the  level. 
—  In   using   the   level 

observe  that: 

1.  There  is  always  a 
starting    point    whose 
elevation  above  datum 
is  known,  or  arbitrarily 
established   or,  to  put 
it  more    correctly,    be- 
low   which    a    datum 
plane  is  arbitrarily  es- 
tablished.     Ordinarily 
in      simple      drainage 
work,     this     arbitrary 
height  or  elevation  is 
10  feet. 

2.  There  are  one  or 
more       other      points 
whose    elevations    are 
not  known,  but  which 
it  is  desired  to  deter- 
mine.     The  procedure 
is  about  as  follows  : 

129.  Setting  up  the 
level.  -  -  The    level    is 
set  up : 

1.   At  a    convenient 
within  range  of  a 


LEVELING  99 

point  whose  elevation  is  known,  or  has  been  established ; 
it  is  set,  with  the  legs  of  the  tripod  spread  in  such  a  way 
that  when  they  are  firmly  set  in  the  soil,  the  lower  plate 
of  the  leveling  head  E,  Fig.  36,  is  approximately  level. 

2.  The  upper  plate  and  spindle  are  then  adjusted  by 
the  use  of  the  thumb-screws  of  the  leveling  head,  so  that 
the  spirit  level  indicates  level  in  whatever  direction  the 
telescope  is  turned.  In  practice,  the  telescope  is  turned 
so  that  it  stands  in  line  with  two  opposite  thumb-screws, 
and  adjustment  is  made  to  bring  the  telescope  to  level.  It 
is  then  turned  so  that  it  stands  in  line  with  the  other 
pair  of  thumb-screws  and  adjusted  as  before.  The 
telescope  is  now  turned  back  to  its  first  position  for  re- 
adjustment, then  reversed,  then  turned  to  its  second  posi- 
tion and  reversed,  and  in  each  case  the  thumb-screws 
are  used,  if  necessary,  to  perfect  the  adjustment  to  bring 
the  telescope  to  level.  When  thus  adjusted,  the  telescope 
should  stand  level  in  all  positions. 

130.  Cautions.  —  The    following    cautions    should    be 
observed  in  setting  up  the  level : 

1.  Tighten  the  thumb-screws  only  sufficiently  to  hold 
the  telescope  firmly.     More  than  this  is  likely  to  do  injury 
to  screws  and  plates. 

2.  Remember  that  once  the  level  is  carefully  adjusted, 
continual  care  must  be  exercised  to  keep  it  in  adjustment. 
It  should  not  be  struck;    one  should  not  stand  too  near 
the  feet  of  the  tripods;    the  bubble  of  the  spirit  level 
should  be  frequently  observed. 

131.  Determining    the    height    of    the    level.  —  The 
height  of  the  instrument  is  determined  in  the  following 
manner : 

1.  A  leveling  rod  is  held  by  an  assistant,  or  rodman, 
on  a  point  whose  elevation  is  known,  or  has  been  es- 


100  LAND   DRAINAGE 

tablished.     The  rod  should  be  held  perpendicular  with 
the  face  toward  the  level. 

2.  The  person  in  charge  of  the  adjusted  level  turns  the 
telescope  toward  the  rod,  places  the  eye  at  the  eye  piece, 
and  moves  the  objective  out  or  in  until  the  figures  upon 
the  face  of  the  leveling  rod  are  clearly  seen  or,  if  the  rod 
is  too  far  away  for  that,  till  the  view  of  the  target  is  clear 
cut.  The  eye  piece  may  need  adjusting  to  bring  out  clearly 
the  cross-hair.  He  should  look  now  to  see  that  the  spirit 
level  indicates  level  and,  if  necessary,  adjust. 

132.  Direct  reading.  —  If  the  figures  on  the  leveling 
rod  appear  sufficiently  clear  to  the  one  in  charge  of  the 
level,  as  he  looks  through  the  telescope,  he  should  read 
and  record  the  height  on  the  rod  at  which  the  horizontal 
cross-hair  crosses  the  face  of  the  rod. 

133.  Target  reading.  —  If  the  figures  on  the  leveling 
rod  do  not  appear  sufficiently  clear  to  be  read  by  the  person 
in  charge  of  the  level,  then  the  rodman  must  raise  or  lower 
the  target  as  directed  by  signs  from  the  person  in  charge 
of  the  level,  until  the  horizontal  bisecting  line  of  the  target 
lies  exactly  behind  the  horizontal  cross-hair  of  the  telescope 
as  seen  through  the  telescope.     The  rodman  should  now 
carefully  tighten  the  set  screw  of  the  target  and  then  read 
to  the  level-man  the  height  at  which  the  horizontal  bisect- 
ing line  of  the  target  crosses  the  face  of  the  rod.     This 
height  the   level    man    should    carefully   record.      The 
rodman  may  record  the  reading. 

134.  Back-sight  reading  and  its  use.  —  This  reading  is 
called  the  back-sight,  and  is  the  name  always  given  to 
the  reading  taken  at  the  point  whose  elevation  is  known, 
or  assumed,  and  is  always  taken  to  determine  the  height 
of  the  instrument.     Let  us    suppose    the    reading    just 
taken  to  be  4.95  feet.     This  means  that  the  instrument  is 


LEVELING  101 

4.95  feet  above  the  point  at  which  the  rod  was  held.  Let 
us  suppose  also  the  height  of  the  point  at  which  the 
rod  is  held  to  be  11.35  feet  above  datum.  If,  now,  we 
add  4.95  feet  to  11.35  feet,  we  have  16.30  feet  as  the 
height  of  the  instrument  above  datum. 

135.  Elevation  of  other  points.  —  The  height  or  ele- 
vation of  other  points  within  range  of  the  level  are  de- 
termined in  the  following  way  : 

1.  The  rodman  carries  the  rod  and  holds  it,  face  to- 
ward the  level,  upon  one  of  the  points  whose  height  is 
sought. 

2.  The  telescope  is  turned  toward  the  rod  in  its  new 
position  and  focused  to  bring  out,  most  clearly,  the  figures 
on  the  face  of  the  rod.     The  reading  is  taken  as  in  (133) 
above  and  recorded. 

136.  Fore-sight  reading  and  its  use.  — This  reading  is 
called  a  fore-sight,  which  is  the  name  given  to  any  reading 
taken  at  the  point  whose  elevation  is  to  be  determined. 
Let  us  suppose  that  this  fore-sight  reading  is  4.22  feet. 
It  means  that  the  point  at  which  the  rod  is  held,  and  whose 
elevation  is  sought,  is  4.22  feet  lower  than  the  instrument, 

—  4.22  feet  nearer  the  datum  plane  than  is  the  instrument. 
If,  then,  we  subtract  4.22  feet  (the  fore-sight  reading) 
from  16.30  feet  (the  height  of  the  instrument),  we  obtain 
12.08  feet  as  the  elevation  of  the  new  point. 

In  like  manner  the  rod  should  be  placed  at  other  points 
within  the  range  of  the  instrument,  and  fore-sight  readings 
taken.  In  each  case,  subtracting  its  fore-sight  reading 
from  the  height  of  the  instrument  gives  the  elevation 
of  the  point  at  which  the  fore-sight  reading  was  taken. 
Let  us  suppose  three  other  fore-sight  readings  are  taken 
at  three  other  points,  respectively,  and  that  these  three 
readings  are  3.75  feet,  3.06  feet  and  3.11  feet. 


102 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


137.  Cautions.  —  In  taking   a   reading,  the  following 
cautions  should  be  observed : 

1.  Always    before    recording  a   reading,   observe    the 
bubble  in  the  spirit  level  to  be  sure  that  the  telescope  is 
level. 

2.  If  at  any  time  the  level  should  be  disturbed,  it  should 
be  properly  set  and  its  height  redetermined  before  taking 
other  fore-sight  readings.     In  establishing  the  new  height 
of  instrument,  a  reading  may  be  taken  to  any  point  whose 
elevation  is  known. 

138.  Records     and     computations.  —  Every     reading 
should  be  carefully  recorded  in  its  proper  place  in  a  table 
provided  for  the  purpose.     If  it  is  desired  merely  to  find 
the  elevation  of  several  points,  the  form  of  table  given 
below  will  serve  the  purpose.    (See  Table  VIII.)    Usually 
the  figures  are  introduced   into  the  table  as  they  are 
obtained  in  the  work  of  leveling,  and  the  computations 
are  made  later. 

TABLE  VIII 


POINT  OR  STAKE 

BACK-SIGHT 

HEIGHT  OF 
INSTRUMENT 

FORE-SIGHT 

ELEVATION 

1 

4.95 





11.35 

2 

— 

— 

4.22 

— 

3 

— 

.       — 

3.75 

— 

4 

— 

— 

3.06 

— 

5 

— 

— 

3.11 

— 

139.  Directions  and  explanations.  —  The  following 
points  should  be  observed  : 

1.  That  the  elevation  of  point  1  had  already  been 
established  or  assumed.  It  should  be  recorded  after  point 
1,  under  elevation. 


LEVELING 


103 


2.  The  back-sight  was  taken  at  point  1.      It  is  always 
taken  at  a  point  whose  elevation  has  been  established. 

3.  Each  fore-sight  reading  is  recorded  after  the  point 
at  which  it  was  taken. 

4.  In  making  computations  for  determining  the  elevation 
of  the  other  four  points,  the  back-sight  reading  4.95  feet 
is  added  to  the  elevation  of  point  1,  which  in  this  case  is 
11.35  feet.     This  gives  16.3  feet  as  the  height  of  the  in- 
strument above  datum  and  this  is  introduced  after  the 
back-sight  reading  under  height  of  instrument,  as  appears 
in  Table  IX. 

5.  The  elevation  of  each  point  is  found  by  subtracting 
its  fore-sight  reading  from  the  height  of  the  instrument, 
and  when  all  the  elevations  are  thus  found  and  introduced 
the  completed  table  appears  as  is  shown  in  Table  IX. 

TABLE   IX 
TABLE  VIII  COMPLETED 


POINT  OR  STAKE 

BACK-SIGHT 

HEIGHT  OF 

INSTRUMENT 

FORE-SIGHT 

ELEVATION 

1 

4.95 

16.30 



11.35 

2 

— 

— 

4.22 

12.08 

3 

— 

— 

3.75 

12.55 

4 

— 

— 

3.06 

13.24 

5 

— 

— 

3.11 

13.19 

140.  Moving  and  resetting  the  instrument.  —  If  there 
are  other  points  too  high,  or  too  low,  or  too  far  away  to 
fall  within  the  range  of  the  level,  it  must  be  moved  and 
set  at  a  new  place,  so  that  one  or  more  of  the  other  points 
shall  fall  within  its  range,  and  such  that  one  of  the  points 
whose  elevations  have  already  been  found  shall  also  lie 


104  LAND    DRAINAGE 

within  range  of  the  level.  The  height  of  the  instrument 
at  this  new  position  is  now  determined,  the  back-sight 
reading  being  taken  at  a  point  within  range,  and  whose 
elevation  is  already  found,  or  whose  elevation  can  be  found 
from  data  already  obtained.  If  the  new  points  whose 
elevations  are  sought  are  in  the  same  line  of  stakes  as  those 
already  found,  it  is  desirable  to  take  the  back-sight  read- 
ing at  the  stake  whose  elevation  was  last  found.  The 
work  from  this  point  proceeds  as  above  described. 

141.  Using  cheaper  kinds  of  levels.  —  The  cheaper 
kinds  of  drainage  levels  are  of  necessity  more  crudely 
made  and  cannot,  therefore,  be  so  delicately  adjusted  as 
the  better  made  and  more  expensive  instruments. 

In  leveling  with  these  cheaper  instruments,  usually  only 
one  fore-sight  reading  is  taken  with  each  setting  up. 
One  back-sight  reading  must  also  be  taken,  because  this 
is  necessary  to  determine  the  height  of  the  instrument. 
In  using  the  cheaper  level,  the  precaution  should  always 
be  observed  of  setting  the  instrument  nearly  equidistant 
from  the  point  whose  elevation  is  known  and  the  point 
whose  elevation  is  to  be  determined.  In  practice,  in 
leveling  for  drains  where  the  fall  is  large,  it  is  possible, 
with  care,  to  take  two,  three,  or  even  four  fore-sight  read- 
ings with  each  setting  up  of  the  instrument.  But  here, 
as  above,  the  level  should  be  set  very  nearly  midway  be- 
tween the  point  whose  elevation  is  known  and  the  farthest 
point  whose  elevation  is  to  be  determined  with  this  setting 
of  the  instrument. 

If  but  one  fore-sight  reading  were  taken  with  each  set- 
ting up  of  the  instrument  in  determining  the  elevations 
of  the  points  recorded  in  the  tables  above,  the  readings 
would  appear  as  seen  in  the  following  table : 


LEVELING 
TABLE   X 


105 


POINT  OR  STAKE 

BACK-SIGHT 

HEIGHT  OP 
INSTRUMENT 

FORE-SIGHT 

ELEVATION 

1 

4.95 

_ 

_ 

11.35 

2 

4.87 

16.30 

4.22 

12.08 

3 

5.07 

16.95 

4.40 

12.55 

4 

4.66 

17.62 

4.38 

13.24 

5 

—  • 

17.90 

4.71 

13.19 

142.  Simple  devices  sometimes  used  in  leveling.  — 
Where  tile  of  good  size  is  to  be  laid  with  a  fair  fall,  rather 
crude  devices  are  sometimes  used  for  leveling,  with  satis- 


FIG.  41.  —  Illustrating  how  a  carpenter's  level  may  be  mounted  on  a 
stand  and  used  for  leveling. 

factory  results.  There  are  frequently  found  advertised 
in  our  agricultural  journals,  cheaper  leveling  devices, 
ranging  from  $5  to  $10  apiece. 

143.  The  carpenter's  level.  —  A  device  sometimes  used 
is  illustrated  in  Fig.  41.  It  consists  of  a  one-legged  stand 
with  the  lower  end  of  the  leg  sharpened  so  that  it  can  be 
pushed  into  the  ground  sufficiently  to  hold  the  stand  firmly 
upright,  and  so  that  the  top  of  the  stand  shall  be  approxi- 
mately level.  Upon  the  top  a  carpenter's  level  is  placed 


106  LAND   DRAINAGE 

and,  by  the  use  of  wide  thin  wedges,  adjusted  to  level. 
Over  the  top  of  the  level  thus  adjusted  the  operator  may 
sight.  Figure  41  shows  the  level  in  use. 

144.  The  water  level.  —  Figure  42  shows  what  is  some- 
times spoken  of  as  the  water  level.  It  consists,  in  this 
case,  of  two  glass  tubes  firmly  clamped  to  a  bar  which  in 
turn  is  firmly  fastened  to  a  sharpened  leg.  The  lower 


FIG.  42.  —  Illustrating  the  water  level  in  use. 

ends  of  the  tubes  are  connected  by  a  piece  of  rubber  tub- 
ing. A  colored  fluid  is  introduced  through  one  of  the 
tubes  until  it  stands  within  an  inch  of  the  tops  of  the 
glass  tubes,  care  being  taken  to  have  the  bar  nearly 
horizontal.  In  accordance  with  a  law  of  fluids,  the  tops 
of  the  columns  of  colored  liquid  in  the  glass  tubes  stand 
at  the  same  level.  A  line  passing  over  the  tops  of  the 
columns  of  fluid,  therefore,  when  the  fluid  has  come  to 
rest,  is  level.  Sometimes  horizontal  sliding  sights  are 
set  on  the  tubes.  When  the  fluid  comes  to  rest,  each  sight 
is  set  even  with  the  top  of  the  column  of  fluid  in  its  tube. 
The  sighting  is  then  done  over  these  sights.  (See  also 
Fig.  43.) 

With  these  home-made  devices  there  must  also  be  used 
a  leveling  rod,  which  is  also  usually  home-made,  the 
making  of  which  will  vary  with  the  notions  of  the  maker. 


LEVELING  107 

145.  The  hose  level.  — In  Chapter  IX  there  is  described 
a  device  for  leveling  which  is  cheap  to  construct,  simple 
to  operate,  and  accurate  in  results  obtained.  It  consists 
of  a  piece  of  inch  or  f-inch  or  even  J-inch  garden  hose 
about  60  feet  long,  into  the  ends  of  which  have  been 


FIG.  43.  —  Closer  view  of  water  level  and  carpenter's  level. 

clamped  12-inch  pieces  of  water  gauge  tubing.  With  the 
ends  brought  near  together  arid  held  in  an  upright  posi- 
tion, water  is  introduced  till  the  hose  is  filled  and  the 
water  stands  in  the  tubes  half  their  lengths.  The  two 
columns  of  water  stand  at  the  same  height  as  shown  in 
Fig.  67  regardless  of  the  position  of  the  hose. 


CHAPTER  VI 
LAYING  OUT  A  DRAIN  OR  SYSTEM 

WHEN  •  the  tile  draining  ranges  from  a  single  line  of 
tile  to  a  system  draining  a  moderate  area,  with  reasonable 
facilities  for  an  outlet,  and  with  a  fair  fall,  it  is  entirely 
practicable  for  the  farmer  to  do  the  work  himself.  On 
the  other  hand,  when  the  area  to  be  drained  is  large,  and 
especially  when  the  fall  must  of  necessity  be  very  slight,  - 
it  is  usually  better  to  place  the  work  in  the  hands  of  a 
practical  drainage  engineer.  In  any  case  the  work  should 
be  taken  up  much  as  outlined  below. 

146.  Establishing    the    point    of    outlet.  —  The    first 
thing  to  be  done  is  to  determine  the  point  at  which  the 
drain,   or  system,   shall  discharge  its  water.     We  have 
already  indicated   in    paragraph    112   how   important    a 
matter  this  is.      Upon  it  depends  not  only  the  regular 
and  proper  disposal  of  the  water  discharged  from  the 
system,  but  the  plan  and  efficiency  of  the  system  itself, 
and  the  economy  that  may  be  exercised  in  its  construc- 
tion.    A  tile  drain  or  a  tile  system  should  be  planned  not 
for  a  few  years,  but  for  generations  of  service. 

147.  Laying  out  a  drain.  —  If  the  drain  is  to  be  single 
or  simple,  one  should  begin  at  the  point  determined  upon 
for  the  outlet,  and  establish  the  line  of  the  drain  by  driving 
stakes  at  intervals  of  50  feet.1    Two  kinds  of  stakes 
should  be  provided. 

148.  Grade  stakes.  —  These  stakes  should  be  about 
1  inch  by  1|  inches,  10  inches  long,  and  pointed.     In 

1  With  many  engineers  100  feet  is  preferred. 
108 


LAYING   OUT   A    DRAIN   OR   SYSTEM          109 

clay  soils  8  inches  is  long  enough  for  the  grade  stakes, 
while  in  looser  soils,  such  as  mucks,  the  length  should  be 
12  to  15  inches.  The  grade  stakes  should  be  driven  in 
straight  lines,  2  inches  back  from  the  intended  edge  of 
the  ditch.  If  the  ditch  is  not  to  be  straight  throughout 
its  entire  length,  the  breaks  should  be  made  if  possible 
at  a  point  or  points  established  by  the  grade  stakes. 
They  should  all  be  driven  on  the  same  side  of  the  ditch ; 
at  least  this  should  be  true  for  any  one  section  of  the 
drain.  They  should  be  driven  so  that  the  tops  stand 
about  \  inch  above  the  ground  in  each  case,  and  to  secure 
uniformity  in  height  above  the  ground,  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  carry  a  small  piece  of  J-inch  board,  6  inches  by  12  inches, 
and  to  lay  this  board  on  the  ground  next  to  the  stake  and 
drive  the  stake  until  its  top  shall  stand  just  even  with 
the  upper  surface  of  the  board.  In  this  way  the  effects 
of  the  little  inequalities  in  the  soil  are  overcome.  These 
stakes  should  be  driven  so  that  their  greatest  width 
stands  parallel  with  the  edge  of  the  drain. 

149.  Finders.  —  About  6  inches  back  from  each  grade 
stake  should  be  driven  another  stake,  commonly  called 
a  finder.     This  should  be  18  inches  to  2  feet  long,  |-  inch 
thick,  and  2  to  3  inches  wide,  and  should  be  driven  from 
4  to  6  inches  into  the  ground.     The  finder  assists  in  the 
subsequent  locating  of  the  grade  stakes,  and  sometimes 
has  recorded  upon  it  data  concerning  the  ditch.     These 
data  are  usually  placed  upon  the  finder  for  the  benefit 
of  the  man  who  digs  the  ditch,  and  may  include  such  items 
as  the  depth  of  the  ditch  at  this  point,  the  distance  of 
the  stake  from  the  terminal  of  the  ditch,  the  height  of 
the  grade  bar,  the  boning  line,  and  the  like. 

150.  Laying  out  a  main.  —  The  procedure  in  laying 
out  a  main  will  not  differ  from  that  in  laying  out  a  single 


110  LAND   DRAINAGE 

or  simple  ditch,  excepting  that  the  grade  stakes  may  be 
driven  at  intervals  other  than  50  feet.  In  laying  out  the 
main,  the  grade  stake  usually  establishes  also  the  point 
at  which  the  laterals  connect  with  the  main  and,  there- 
fore, the  starting  point  of  the  laterals.  If  the  laterals 
are  to  be  located  at  intervals  of  100  feet,  and  the  laterals 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  main  are  to  alternate  and  to  lie 
at  right  angles  to  the  main,  as  shown  in  Fig.  26,  then  50 
feet  is  the  proper  interval  to  be  adopted  between  grade 
stakes.  If  the  laterals  on  one  side  of  the  main  are  to  be 
located  at  intervals  of  60  feet,  and  are  to  lie  at  right 
angles  to  the  main,  then  the  grade  stakes  should  be  set 
at  intervals  of  30  feet.  In  other  words,  the  interval  be- 
tween any  two  grade  stakes  is  one-half  the  interval  be- 
tween any  two  laterals  on  one  side  of  the  main.  This 
is,  of  course,  under  the  assumption  that  the  intervals 
between  laterals  are  uniform. 

151.  Fifty-foot   intervals.  —  The   50-foot   interval  be- 
tween grade  stakes  is  chiefly  desirable  because  in  thinking 
of,  and  discussing,  the  fall  of  drains,  the  fall  in  inches 
is  almost  invariably  compared  with  100  feet  of  length  of 
drain.     When  a  drain  is  said  to  have  a  fall  of  three  inches, 
a  fall  of  three  inches  in  100  feet  of  drain  is  meant.     Fifty 
feet  is  just  one-half  of  100  feet,  and  if  the  rate  of  fall  is 
3  inches  for  100  feet,  then  the  fall  in  50  feet  is  1|  inches. 
If  the  interval  between  stakes  is  any  other  than  50  feet, 
some  other  factor  than  one-half  must  be  used  in  deter- 
mining the  fall  between  stakes.     The  next  easiest  dis- 
tance to  use  for  intervals  between  stakes  is  25  feet,  which 
is  one-quarter  of  100  feet,  and  the  next  is  33  feet  4  inches, 
which  is  one- third  of  100  feet. 

152.  The  relation  of  angle  of  approach  to  the  main 
to    the    actual    distance    between    laterals.  —  In    some 


LAYING   OUT   A    DRAIN   OR   SYSTEM 


111 


respects  it  is  desirable  that  the  laterals  lie  at  angles  less 
than  90°  to  the  main:  (1)  with  an  angle  less  than  90°, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  introduce  a  curve  or  angle  at  the 
outlet  end  of  the  lateral ;  (2)  in  very  many  cases  the 
outlet  of  the  area  to  be  drained  is  other  than  square, 
and  can  be  more  economically  served  by  the  lateral  if 
it  lies  at  an  angle  less  than  90  degrees  to  the  main. 

When  two  laterals,  entering  the  main  at  an  interval  of 
100  feet,  lie  at  an  angle  of  30  degrees  to  the  main,  they 
are  just  50  feet  apart.  If  two  laterals,  entering  the  main 
100  feet  apart,  lie  at  an  angle  of  60  degrees  to  the  main, 
their  distance  apart  is  nearly  86  feet,  7  inches.  If  two 
laterals,  entering  a  main  100  feet  apart,  lie  at  an  angle  of 
45  degrees,  the  distance  between  them  is  nearly  70  feet, 
8  inches.  (See  Fig.  44,  also  Table  XL) 

TABLE   XI 

RELATION  OP  ANGLE  OF  APPROACH  TO  MAIN  TO  DISTANCE  BETWEEN 
LATERALS,  WHEN  LATERALS  ENTER  MAIN   100  FT.   APART 


ANGLE 

DISTANCE  BETWEEN  DRAINS 

RELATION 

Feet 

Feet  and  Inches 

30° 

50 

500 

.50 

35 

57.358 

57  4^ 

.5736 

40 

64.279 

64  3| 

.6428 

45 

70.711 

70  8£ 

.7070 

50 

76.604 

767 

.7660 

55 

81.915 

81  11 

.8192 

60 

86.603 

867 

.8660 

65 

90.631 

90  1\ 

.9063 

70 

93.969 

93  \\\ 

.9367 

75 

96.593 

967 

.9659 

80 

98.481 

986 

.9848 

85 

99.619 

99  7£ 

.9962 

FIG.  44.  —  Relation  of  the  angle  of  approach  to  the  distance  between 
drains.     See  Table  XL 


LAYING   OUT   A    DRAIN   OR   SYSTEM          113 

To  determine  the  distance  between  laterals  when  they 
enter  the  main  at  a  distance  other  than  100  feet,  multiply 
distance  by  the  relation  factor  of  the  angle  at  which  they 
approach  the  main.  Example :  If  laterals  enter  at 
distance  70  feet  and  approach  at  an  angle  of  50°  (the 
factor  for  50°  is  .766),  70 X. 766  =  53.620  feet.  The  dis- 
tance between  laterals  is  53.62  feet  or  53  feet  7|  inches 
nearly. 

153.  Laterals.  — The  laying  out  of  a  lateral  is  in  no  way 
different  from  that  of  a  simple  drain,  as  described  in 
paragraph  146,  excepting  that  the  laterals  discharge  at 
their  lower  terminal  into  the  main  or  sub-main,  and  not 
at  an  outlet.     It  is  most  convenient  to  drive  the  grade 
stakes  at  intervals  of  50  feet,  for  reasons  given  in  para- 
graph 147,  and  for  the  further  reason  that  a  greater  dis- 
tance than  50  feet  increases  the  difficulty  in  using  the 
boning  line. 

154.  The  angle  of  approach  for  laterals.  —  It  is  com- 
mon, in  systems  like  that  illustrated  in  Fig.  25,  to  locate 
the  laterals  so  that  their  upper  angle  to  the  main  shall 
be  less  than  90  degrees.     If,  however,  it  should  be  deemed 
advisable  to  run  the  lateral  at  right  angles  to  the  main, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  26,  then  they  should  be  turned  slightly 
as  they  approach  the  main  so  as  to  enter  at  an  angle  of 
less  than  90  degrees,  the  reason  being  that  if  the  water 
from  the  lateral  is  discharged  into  the  main  at  an  angle 
of  90  degrees,  it  is  likely  to  interfere  with  the  movements 
of  the  water  and  also  with  the  ready  movement  of  the  silt 
which  may  be  carried  by  the  waters  of  the  main.     An- 
other factor,  however,  that  must  enter  into  the  angle  of 
approach  is  the  position  and  shape  of  the  area  requiring 
drainage.     (See  Figs.  28  and  29.)     The  angle  of  approach 
must  be  determined  by  the  needs  of  the  land  and  economy 


114  LAND   DRAINAGE 

in  labor.     The  angle  of  discharge  should  be  governed  by 
the  suggestions  above. 

155.  The  location  of  the  upper  end    of  mains  and 
laterals.  —  It  is  not  necessary  to  carry  the  end  of  either 
main  or  lateral  to  the  very  edge  of  the  area  to  be  drained. 
The  water  in  the  soil  will  move  toward  the  end  as  readily 
as  it  will  toward  any  other  point  in  the  drain.     The  line 
of  equal  influence  of  the  drain  at  this  point  is  the  arc  of 
a  circle  whose  center  is  the  end  of  the  drain. 

156.  Measurements.  —  Due  care  should  be  exercised 
in  laying  out  each  simple  drain,  main  and  lateral.     The 
distance  between  stakes  should  be  carefully  measured, 
and  the  distance  of  each  stake  from  the  lower  end  of  the 
drain  carefully  recorded.     This  information  will  be  needed 
(1)  in  determining  the  grades,  and  (2)  in  estimating  the 
size  and  the  amount  of  tile  needed. 

157.  Estimate  of  tile  and  order  for  it.  — If  a  preliminary 
survey  and  estimate  of  the  size  and  amount  of  tile  needed 
has  not  already  been  made,  this  should  be  done  now,  and 
the  tile  ordered.     Paragraph  116  should  be  studied  to 
assist  in  making  these  estimates. 

Many  of  the  manufacturers  of  glazed  tile  manufacture 
also  angles  for  connecting  laterals  to  mains  and  sub- 
mains.  When  glazed  tile  is  used,  it  is  well  to  purchase 
these  angles  for  connections,  and  the  number  and  sizes 
needed  should  be  included  in  the  order. 

158.  Hauling  and  distributing  tile.  —  While  not  ab- 
solutely necessary,  it  is  desirable  that  the  tile  be  hauled 
upon  the  ground  and  distributed  near  the  lines  in  which 
it  is  to  be  used,  before  the  leveling  begins.     The  driving 
of  teams  and  the  handling  of  the  tile  is  likely  to  result 
in  disturbing  the  grade  stakes,  and  these  should  not  be 
disturbed  from  the  time  the  leveling  is  completed  till 


LAYING  OUT   A    DRAIN   OR   SYSTEM          115 

the  tile  is  laid  in  the  bottom  of  the  ditch.  It  is  not  so 
convenient,  and  it  is  more  expensive,  to  distribute  the 
tile  after  the  digging  of  the  ditch  has  begun. 

159.  Leveling  for  the  drain.  —  If  there  is  a  system  of 
drains  to  install,  the  work  of  leveling  begins  with  the 
main.     If  there  is  only  a  single  drain,  the  work  of  leveling 
will  proceed  in  much  the  same  manner.     The  object  of 
the  leveling  is  to  determine  the  elevation  above  datum 
of  the  surface  of  the  field  at  each  stake  along  the  proposed 
drain,,  or  at  each  stake  in  the  proposed  system,  as  the 
case  may  be.     The  reasons  for  this  will  appear  later.     The 
manner  of  doing  the  work  of  leveling  will  be  the  same  as 
was  described  in  paragraphs  128-140. 

160.  Steps  in  the  procedure.  —  The  work  of  leveling 
will  begin  at  the  stake  driven  at,  or  nearest  to,  the  pro- 
posed outlet.     This  stake  is  numbered  1. 

a.  If  the  level  to  be  used  is  a  high  class  instrument, 
and  the  drain  is  not  over  60  rods  long,  it  may  be  set  up 
at  about  the  middle  of  the  length  of  the  drain.  The 
elevation  of  stake  1  will  be  assumed  to  be  10  feet  above 
datum  and  recorded  as  such  in  the  proper  column,  after 
stake  1  in  the  notes. 

The  first  reading  will  be  a  back-sight  reading  taken  at 
stake  1  and  will  be  recorded  in  the  proper  column,  after 
stake  1  in  the  notes.  This  back-sight  reading,  added  to 
the  recorded  height  of  stake  1,  gives  the  height  of  the 
instrument.  A  fore-sight  reading  should  now  be  taken  at 
every  other  stake  within  the  range  of  the  level  along  the 
proposed  drain.  Each  fore-sight  reading  should  be 
recorded  in  the  notes  after  the  number  of  the  stake  at 
which  it  is  taken.  If  all  the  stakes  of  the  drain  do  not 
fall  within  range  of  the  instrument,  one  or  more  re- 
settings  will  be  necessary. 


116  LAND   DRAINAGE 

Each  of  these  fore-sight  readings,  subtracted  from  the 
height  of  the  instrument,  gives  the  elevation  of  the  stake 
at  which  the  reading  was  taken. 

Observe  the  cautions  suggested  in  paragraphs  130  and 
137. 

b.  If  the  level  to  be  used  is  not  a  high  class  instrument, 
it  should  be  set  a  little  to  one  side  of  the  proposed  drain, 
and  about  equidistant  from  stakes  1  and  2.  As  above, 
the  elevation  of  stake  1  is  assumed  to  be  10  feet  above 
datum,  and  is  recorded  in  the  proper  column  after  stake 

1  in  the  notes. 

A  back-sight  reading  should  be  taken  with  the  rod  on 
stake  1,  and  recorded  in  the  proper  column  after  stake  1 
in  notes.  This  reading,  added  to  the  height  of  stake  1, 
will  give  height  of  instrument. 

A  fore-sight  reading  should  be  taken  with  the  rod  on 
stake  2,  and  recorded  in  the  proper  column,  after  stake 

2  in  notes.     This  reading,  subtracted  from  the  height  of 
instrument,  will  give  elevation  of  stake  2. 

In  like  manner  the  instrument  should  be  set  in  a 
similar  position  between  stakes  2  and  3,  a  back-sight 
reading  should  be  taken  at  stake  2,  and  a  fore-sight 
reading  at  stake  3.  The  back-sight  reading,  added  to 
the  elevation  of  stake  2,  will  give  the  height  of  instrument 
in  the  new  position,  and  subtracting  the  new  fore-sight 
reading  from  this  new  height  of  instrument  will  give  the 
elevation  of  stake  3. 

Proceed  in  this  way,  taking  a  back-sight  and  a  fore- 
sight reading  between  each  two  stakes,  till  the  fore-sight 
reading  is  taken  on  the  last  stake. 

As  stated  in  paragraph  141,  where  there  is  a  fair  fall, 
these  cheaper  levels  may  be  set  up  to  take  3,  and  even 
5  or  7  fore-sight  readings  for  each  back-sight  reading.  In 


LAYING   OUT   A    DRAIN   OR   SYSTEM 


117 


any  case,  the  instrument  should  be  set  so  that  it  shall 
stand  approximately  mid-way  between  the  stake  at  which 
the  back-sight  reading  is  taken,  and  that  at  which  the 
last  fore-sight  reading  is  to  be  taken. 

NOTE  :  Observe  carefully  the  cautions  suggested  in 
paragraph  137. 

161.  Keeping  notes.  —  A  more  extensive  form  must 
now  be  employed  for  keeping  records  of  readings,  and  the 
like,  than  was  shown  in  paragraph  138.  A  table  like  the 
following  is  suggested : 

TABLE   XII 


No.  OF 

STAKE 

DIS- 
TANCE 

BACK- 
SIGHT 

HEIGHT 
OF  IN- 
STRU- 
MENT 

FORE- 
SIGHT 

ELEVA- 
TION 

FALL 

ELEVA- 
TION OF 
BOTTOM 

OF 

DITCH 

DEPTH 

OF 

DITCH 

HEIGHT 

OF 

LINE 

1 



__ 

_ 

__ 

__ 

_ 



_ 

_ 

2 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

3 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

4 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

In  column  (1  are  recorded  the  stake  numbers  in  order. 
In  column  2  is  recorded  the  distance  of  each  stake  from 
stake  1.  With  these  distances  the  distance  between  any 
two  stakes  may  be  found. 

As  the  work  of  leveling  progresses,  the  back-sight 
readings  should  be  properly  recorded  in  column  3,  and  the 
fore-sight  readings  in  column  5. 

Usually,  though  not  necessarily,  all  readings  are  taken 
before  computations  to  determine  the  elevations  of  the 
several  stakes  are  begun.  This,  of  course,  includes  the 
determination  of  the  height  of  instrument  after  each 
back-sight  reading. 


118 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


II    II 


162.  Some  convenient  aids.  — 
To  make  the  succeeding  steps 
more  clear,  and  to  illustrate 
some  simple  means  to  assist 
the  operator  in  establishing 
grades,  and  the  like,  let  us 
take  up  a  piece  of  actual  work, 
with  diagram  and  the  data 
used  in  carrying  it  to  comple- 
tion. 

In  Fig.  45,  A-B  represents 
the  profile  of  the  surface  of 
a  portion  of  a  field  in  which 
it  was  necessary  to  place  a 
tile  drain.  The  distance  A  to 
B  is  500  feet.  In  the  original 
drawing,  2  inches  horizontally 
equaled  100  feet,  while  J  inch 
vertically  equaled  one  foot. 
Using  different  scales  for  the 
two  dimensions  destroys  the 
proportions  and  requires  some 
use  of  the  imagination.  A-C 
represents  a  fall  which  provides 
a  good  outlet. 

Figure  46  represents  the  same 
surface  with  the  grade  stakes 
driven  50  feet  apart,  accord- 
ing to  directions  in  paragraph 
150,  and  numbered  (1-11). 
Only  one  finder  is  shown  in 
place,  and  that  at  grade  stake 
7. 


LAYING   OUT   A    DRAIN   OR   SYSTEM 


119 


163.  Leveling  with  cheaper 
levels.  —  Figure  47  shows  a  cheaper 
form  of  level  described  in  para- 
graph 125,  in  three  positions,  that  si 
is,  first,  between  stakes  1  and  2, 
second,  between  stakes  2  and  3, 
and  third,  between  stakes  3  and 
4.  It  shows,  also,  the  leveling 
rod  in  positions  successively  at 
which  it  would  be  held  to  ob- 
tain the  three  back-sight  and  the 
three  fore-sight  readings  spoken 
of  in  paragraphs  134  and  136. 
There  are  shown,  also,  the  direc- 
tions in  which  the  three  back- 
sight and  the  three  fore-sight 
readings  were  taken,  with  their 
values.  These  readings  will  be 
found  in  columns  3  and  5  in  the 
table  on  the  following  page. 

There  will  be  found  in  columns  3 
and  5,  also,  the  readings  taken  for 
determining  the  elevations  of  the 
remaining  stakes.  In  column  1  of 
the  table  are  the  numbers  of  the 
stakes  1  to  11,  in  column  2  is  shown 
the  distance  of  each  stake  from 
stake  1.  In  this  case  the  stakes 
are  located  50  feet  apart,  so  that 
stake  2  is  50  feet  from  stake  1, 
and  stake  3  is  100  feet  from  stake 
1,  and  so  on  up  to  stake  11, 
which  is  500  feet  from  stake  1. 


120 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


With  these  data  properly  recorded  in  the  table  we  are 
able  later,  by  a  series  of  computations,  to  obtain  all  the 
facts  called  for  in  the  other  columns  of  the  table,  and  thus 
to  obtain  all  the  figures  necessary  to  the  proper  construc- 
tion of  the  drain. 

TABLE   XIII 
SAME  AS  TABLE  XII  WITH  BACK-SIGHT  AND  FORE-SIGHT  READING 

AND  DISTANCES  INTRODUCED 


No.  OF 

STAKE 

DIS- 
TANCE 

BACK- 
SIGHT 

HEIGHT 
OF  IN- 

STKU- 
MENT 

FORE- 
SIGHT 

ELEVA- 
TION 

FALL 

ELEVA- 
TION OF 
BOT- 
TOM OF 
DITCH 

DEPTH 

OF 

DITCH 

HEIGHT 

OF 

LINE 

1 

0 

4.75 

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

2 

50 

5.00 



4.25 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

3 

100 

5.50 



5.17 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

4 

150 

4.83 



3.58 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

5 

200 

5.06 



4.13 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

6 

250 

4.65 



5.51 

— 

— 

— 

— 

—  . 

7 

300 

4.92 



5.91 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

8 

350 

5.75 



4.31 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

9 

400 

4.80 



3.30 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

10 

450 

3.78 



3.70 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

11 

500 

— 



4.98 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

164.  Leveling  with  a  high-grade  level. —  Figure  47  shows 
a  high-grade  instrument  in  position  to  take  levels  for  the 
same  drain.  It  is  located  near  the  center  of  the  drain. 
The  leveling  rod  is  shown  in  position  to  take  the  single 
back-sight  and  also  the  first  fore-sight  reading,  and  the  last 
fore-sight  reading,  with  their  values.  The  data  obtained, 
including  the  remaining  fore-sights,  appear  in  their  proper 
places  in  the  following  table,  which  is  identical  with 
Table  XIII  above: 


LAYING   OUT   A    DRAIN   OR   SYSTEM 


121 


122 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


TABLE   XIV 


No.  OF 
STAKE 

DIS- 
TANCE 

BACK- 
SIGHT 

HEIGHT 
OF  IN- 
STRU- 
MENT 

FORE- 
SIGHT 

ELEVA- 
TION 

FALL 

ELEVA- 
TION OF 
BOT- 
TOM OF 
DITCH 

DEPTH 

OF 

DITCH 

HEIGHT 

OF 

LINE 

1 

0 

6.23 

16.23 

_ 

10 

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

2 

50 

— 

— 

5.73 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

3 

100 

— 

— 

5.90 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

4 

150 

— 

— 

3.98 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

5 

200 

— 

— 

3.28 

— 

— 

-  — 

— 

— 

6 

250 

— 

— 

3.73 

— 

— 

— 



— 

7 

300 

— 

— 

4.99 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

8 

350 

— 

— 

4.38 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

9 

400 

— 

— 

1.93 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

10 

450 

— 

— 

0.83 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

11 

500 

— 

— 

2.03 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

It  will  be  observed,  however,  that  there  is  but  one  back- 
sight reading  in  this  case  to  be  introduced  into  the  back- 
sight column,  and  that  after  the  number  of  the  stake  at 
which  the  back-sight  reading  was  taken. 

165.  Making  the  computations.  —  With  the  fore-sight 
and  back-sight  readings  recorded  in  the  table,  the  first 
step  is  to  determine  the  elevations  of  the  several  stakes. 
Since  the  cheaper  instrument  is  the  one  most  likely 
to  be  used  except  by  professional  engineers,  let  us 
use  the  data  in  Table  XIII  for  the  determination  of 
the  elevations  of  the  stakes.  If  the  reader  is  sure 
that  he  understands  the  processes  of  determining  the 
elevations,  he  may  disregard  what  follows  in  paragraph 
166.  If  he  is  not  sure,  it  is  suggested  that  he  refer  to 
Table  XIII,  in  which  there  is  entered  all  the  data  de- 
veloped to  this  point  in  the  work,  and  that,  following 
directions  below,  he  determine  the  proper  values  and 


LAYING   OUT   A    DRAIN   OR   SYSTEM          123 

enter  them  in  columns  4  and  6  of  the  table ;   or  he  may 
rule  a  table  for  the  purpose. 

166.  Computations  in  detail.  —  Observe  that  the  back- 
sight reading  taken  at  stake  1  is  introduced  on  the  line 
belonging  to  stake  1,  and  that  in  like  manner  each  back- 
sight reading  is  introduced  on  the  line  of  the  stake  at 
which  it  is  taken.  Observe,  also,  that  each  fore-sight 
reading  is  introduced  upon  the  line  of  the  stake  at  which 
it  was  taken. 

1.  We  assume  the  elevation  of  stake  1  to  be  10  feet 
above  datum.     This  we  record  on  line  1  in  column  6. 
Figure  47  shows  the  location  of  the  datum  plane. 

2.  Add  the  first  back-sight  reading,  4.75  feet,  to  the 
elevation  of  stake  1.     This  gives  14.75  feet  as  the  height 
of  the  instrument  above  datum.     The  height  should  be 
recorded  on  line  2  in  column  4.     Subtract  the  fore-sight 
reading,  4.25  feet,  from  this  height  of  instrument.  This 
gives  10.50  feet  as  the  elevation  of  stake  2.     This  eleva- 
tion we  record  on  line  2  in  column  6. 

3.  Add  the  back-sight  reading,  5  feet,  to  the  eleva- 
tion of  stake  2.     This  gives  the  height  of  the  instrument, 
15.50    feet,    in    its    second    position.     Record    properly. 
Subtract  from   15.50  feet  the    fore-sight  reading,   5.17, 
and  we  have  10.33  feet  as  the  elevation  of  stake  3.     This 
elevation  we  record  on  line  3  in  column  6. 

Observe  (1)  That  with  each  setting  of  the  instru- 
ment one  back-sight  and  one  fore-sight  reading  were 
taken.  (2)  That  adding  the  back-sight  reading  to  the 
elevation  of  the  stake  at  which  it  was  taken,  and  subtract- 
ing from  this  sum  the  fore-sight  reading,  gives  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  stake  at  which  the  fore-sight  reading  was  taken. 

Proceed  in  this  manner  until  the  elevations  of  all 
the  stakes  have  been  found,  in  each  case  recording  the 


124 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


height  of  instrument  and  elevation  of  stake  in  the  proper 
places. 

At  this  point  compare  the  results  with  those  recorded 
in  Table  XV  below.  If  they  do  not  agree  in  all  cases 
go  over  the  work  to  discover  and  correct  the  difficulty. 


TABLE  XV 

SAME  AS  TABLE  XIII  —  ELEVATIONS  INTRODUCED 


No.  OP 

STAKE 

DIS- 
TANCE 

BACK- 
SIGHT 

HEIGHT 
OP  IN- 
STRU- 
MENT 

FORE- 
SIGHT 

ELEVA- 
TION 

FALL 

ELE- 
VATION 
OF  BOT- 
TOM OF 
DITCH 

DEPTH 

OF 

DITCH 

HEIGHT 

OF 

GRADE 
BAR 

1 

0 

4.75 





10ft. 

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

2 

50 

5.00 

14.75 

4.25 

10.50 

— 

— 

— 

— 

3 

100 

5.50 

15.50 

5.17 

10.33 

— 

— 

— 

— 

4 

150 

4.83 

15.83 

3.58 

12.25 

— 

— 

— 

— 

5 

200 

5.06 

17.08 

4.13 

12.95 

— 

— 

— 

— 

6 

250 

4.65 

18.01 

5.51 

12.50 

— 

— 

— 

—    • 

7 

300 

4.92 

17.15 

5.91 

11.24 

— 







8 

350 

5.75 

16.16 

4.31 

11.85 

— 

— 

— 

— 

9 

400 

4.80 

17.60 

3.30 

14.30 

— 

— 

— 

— 

10 

450 

3.78 

19.10 

3.70 

15.40 

— 

— 

— 

— 

11 

500 

— 

19.18 

4.98 

14.20 

— 

— 

— 

— 

167.  A  comparison  of  tables.  —  The  data  shown  in 
Table  XIV  are  those  obtained  for  the  same  drain  with  a 
high-grade  instrument.  Observe  that  the  single  back- 
sight reading  is  introduced  on  the  line  of  stake  1.  The 
elevation  of  stake  1  is  10  feet,  as  in  the  other  case.  The 
back-sight  reading  is  6.23,  which,  added  to  the  elevation 
of  stake  1,  gives  the  height  of  the  instrument  as  16.23. 
Subtracting  any  fore-sight  reading  from  the  height  of 
the  instrument  gives  the  elevation  of  the  stake  at  which 


LAYING   OUT   A    DRAIN   OR   SYSTEM 


125 


the  fore-sight  reading 
was  taken.  If  the 
proper  subtractions  are 
made  in  Table  XIV  and 
the  elevations  properly 
introduced  in  the 
column  for  elevations, 
it  will  be  observed  that 
the  elevations  of  the 
several  stakes  are  iden- 
tical with  those  for  the 
same  stakes  as  recorded 
in  Table  XV. 

168.  Preliminaries 
to  establishing  grade  of 
ditch,  cut,  and  the  like. 
—We  are  now  ready  to 
establish  the  depth  of 
the  ditch  at  certain 
points,  and  to  determine 
the  fall.  To  help  in 
these  computations,  a 
diagram  or  profile,  sim- 
ilar to  that  shown  in 
Fig.  48,  should  be  used. 
This  diagram  is  drawn 
upon  ordinary  profile 
paper.  Figure  49  shows 
how  the  same  work 
may  be  accomplished 
with  a  crude  diagram 
drawn  upon  letter  paper 
or  rough  note  paper. 


y 

0                                              ,            l 

i 

i 

1 

i 

1 

.. 

1                 •<§ 

x*=* 

N  K 
II 


126  LAND   DRAINAGE 

In  this  work  we  use  the  elevations  as  they  now  appear 
in  Table  XV.  Two  precautions  are  to  be  observed  in 
this  part  of  the  work : 

1.  Not  to  have  the  ditch  unnecessarily  deep  at  any  one 
or  more  points.     Unnecessary  depth  means  added  ex- 
pense in  digging  and  filling. 

2.  To  have  the  ditch  sufficiently  deep.      Insufficient 
depth  would  endanger  the  tile  from  frost  or  even  from 
plow  points,  and  it  would  very  likely  fail  to  lower  the 
ground  water  sufficiently  for  best  results. 

169.  The  grade  or  fall.  —  A  good  method  of  procedure 
is  something  as  follows : 

(a)  Referring  to  Fig.  49,  we  find  that  conditions  will 
permit  a  depth  of  3  feet  at  stake  1,  which  is  practically 
the  outlet.     Three  feet  is  a  satisfactory  depth.     Let  us 
establish  on  our  diagram,  Fig.  49,  point  a,  3  feet  below 
stake  1. 

(b)  For  trial  let  us  establish  a  point,  b,  3  feet  below  the 
top  of  stake  11. 

(c)  If  the  fall  in  our  ditch  is  to  be  constant,  from  point 
b  to  point  a,  a  straight  line  connecting  the  two  points 
will  indicate  the  bottom  of  the  ditch.     We  draw  such  a 
line. 

It  is  very  evident,  as  one  looks  at  the  diagram,  after 
drawing  the  line  ab,  that  this  plan  brings  the  drain  very 
close  to  the  surface  at  stakes  7  and  8.  At  either  stake,  if 
one  applies  the  scale,  the  depth  is  found  to  be  not  over 
18  inches,  and,  while  drains  are  sometimes  laid  as  shallow 
as  this,  a  greater  depth  is  desirable.  It  is  further  found 
that  this  drain  would  be  only  27  inches  deep  at  stake  3. 

(d)'  Let  us  establish  a  point  at  c,  3  feet  below  the  top 
of  stake  7,  and  draw  a  dotted  line  from  a  to  c  and  From  c 
to  6.  We  have  now  indicated  the  bottom  of  a  drain  that 


LAYING   OUT   A    DRAIN   OR   SYSTEM 


127 


IF007 


/O6 


3.OO 

^   &   C;   ^   o;    5; 

FIG.  49.  —  Diagram  drawn  on  common  note  paper,  but  for  the  same 
purpose  as  that  illustrated  in  Fig.  48.  The  space  between  lines  rep- 
resents one  foot  perpendicular.  \  of  an  inch  on  the  original  repre- 
sented 50  feet.  The  purpose  of  this  figure  is  to  show  the  value  of 
such  a  diagram  in  forming  a  rather  accurate  estimate  of  the  depth 
of  the  ditch  at  any  point  for  any  proposed  initial  depth  and  fall. 
The  position  of  the  lines  on  the  note  paper  is  indicated  by  the 
figures  1  to  16. 


128  LAND   DRAINAGE 

is  little  less  than  3  feet  deep  at  any  point.  But  it  is  5 
feet  deep  at  stake  5  and  nearly  5  feet  deep  at  stake  9. 
A  5-foot  cut  makes  rather  expensive  digging.  A  compro- 
mise would  be  better  in  this  case. 

(e)  Let  us  establish  a  new  point,  d,  2j  feet  below  the 
top  of  stake  7  and  a  new  point,  e,  1\  feet  below  top  of 
stake  11,  and  draw  a  new  line  d  to  e,  to  represent  the 
bottom  of  a  drain  from  stake  7  to  stake  11.  This  mate- 
rially lessens  the  amount  of  digging  at  stakes  9  and  10. 

(/)  Let  us  adopt  the  line  ade  as  the  bottom  of  the 
drain. 

Observe  that  the  drain  will  be  3  feet  deep  at  stake  1, 
2|  feet  deep  at  stake  7,  and  2J  feet  deep  at  stake  11. 
These  depths  we  have  established  for  convenience  and 
economy  in  the  work  of  digging.  If  this  were  a  main 
drain  it  might  be  necessary,  because  of  the  laterals,  to 
make  the  line  (acb)  the  bottom  of  the  drain.  If,  how- 
ever, this  drain  were  to  be  a  lateral  instead  of  a  main, 
the  line  (ade)  would  be  better  for  the  bottom  of  a  drain. 

Observe,  also,  that  the  diagram  we  are  using  for  this 
purpose  brings  out,  more  clearly,  the  relative  depths  of 
the  drain  at  the  several  points. 

(g)  Introduce  these  depths  in  column  9  of  the  table  — 
3  feet  on  line  1,  2.5  feet  on  line  7,  and  2.5  feet  on  line  11. 

(h)  If  the  depth  is  3  feet  at  stake  1,  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch  is  3  feet  below  the  top  of  stake  1,  or  it  is  3  feet  lower 
than  stake  1.  If  then  we  subtract  the  depth  of  the  ditch, 
3  feet,  from  the  elevation  of  the  stake,  we  have  (10  feet  — 
3  feet  =  )  7  feet  as  the  elevation  of  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch,  at  stake  1,  above  datum.  Subtracting  the  depth 
of  the  ditch,  2j  feet,  at  stake  7,  from  the  elevation  at  7, 
gives  8.74  feet  as  the  elevation  of  the  bottom  of  the  ditch 
at  stake  7.  Subtracting  the  depth  of  the  ditch  at  stake 


LAYING   OUT   A    DRAIN  OR  SYSTEM         129 

11,  from  the  elevation  of  stake  11,  gives  11.70  feet  as 
the  elevation  of  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  at  that  point. 

(i)  Introduce  these  ditch-bottom  elevations  into  column 
8  of  Table  XV  on  their  proper  lines,  —  7  feet  on  line  1, 
8.74  feet  on  line  7,  and  11.70  feet  on  line  11. 

(j)  Before  we  can  go  further  in  finding  values  for  columns 
8  and  9,  we  must  determine  the  fall  or  grade  of  the  drain. 

The  elevation  of  bottom  of  ditch  at  stake  11  is  11.70  feet. 
The  elevation  of  bottom  of  ditch  at  stake  7  is    8.74  feet. 
The  fall  of  the  drain  from  stake  11  to  stake  7  is    2.96. 
The  distance  from  stake  11  to  stake  7  is  (500  feet  —  300 

feet  = )  200  feet. 

The  fall  to  a  100  feet  of  this  distance  is  (2.96  feet-i-2  =  ) 
1.48. 

Notice  the  way  in  which  this  fall  is  introduced  in 
Table  XVI. 

The  stakes  along  this  drain  are  50  feet  apart,  so  that  the 
fall  from  one  stake  to  another  is  one-half  of  1.48  feet,  or 
.74  feet.  In  other  words  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  at  stake 
10  will  be  .74  feet  lower  than  at  stake  11  and  .74  feet 
lower  at  stake  9  than  at  stake  10  and  so  on. 

11.70  feet  =  elevation  of  bottom  of  ditch  at  11. 

.74 
10.96  feet  =  elevation  of  bottom  of  ditch  at  10. 

.74 
10.22  feet  =  elevation  of  bottom  of  ditch  at  9. 

.74 
9.48  feet  =  elevation  of  bottom  of  ditch  at  8. 

.74 


8.74  feet  =  elevation  of  bottom  of  ditch  at  7. 


130 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


Observe,  that  our  last  remainder,  8.74  feet,  is  the 
elevation  of  bottom  of  ditch  already  indicated  in  column 

8,  which  indicates  that  the  subtractions  to  this  point  are 
correct. 

Introduce  the  elevations  of  ditch  bottoms  at  stakes  8, 

9,  and  10  in  column  8  of  Table  XV. 

The  elevation  of  bottom  of  ditch  at  stake  7  is  8.74  feet. 
The  elevation  of  bottom  of  ditch  at  stake  1  is  7.00  feet. 
The  fall  from  stake  7  to  stake  1  is  1.74  feet. 

Find  the  fall  to  a  hundred  feet  from  stake  7  to  stake 
1  and  record  in  column  7  in  Table  XV  and  compare 
your  result  with  that  in  Table  XVI. 

Find  the  fall  also  for  50  feet  and  determine  the  eleva- 
tions of  bottom  of  ditch  at  stakes  6,  5,  4,  3,  and  2.  In- 
troduce these  elevations  into  the  proper  places  in  column 
8.  Then  compare  your  results  in  column  8  with  those  in 
column  8  of  Table  XVI. 

TABLE   XVI 


No.  OF 

STAKE 

DIS- 
TANCE 

BACK- 
SIGHT 

HEIGHT 
OF  IN- 
STRU- 
MENT 

FORE- 
SIGHT 

ELEVA- 
TION 

FALL 

ELEVA- 
TION OF 
BOT- 
TOM OF 
DITCH 

DEPTH 

OF 

DITCH 

HEIGHT 

OF 

GRADE 
BAR 

1 

0 

4.75 





10ft. 

7 

3 

2.5 

2 

50 

5.00 

14.75 

4.25 

10.50 

.3 

7.29 

3.21 

2.29 

3 

100 

5.50 

15.50 

5.17 

10.33 

"t  £ 

7.58 

2.75 

2.75 

4 

150 

4.83 

15.83 

3.58 

12.25 

«S  o 

7.87 

4.38 

1.12 

5 

200 

5.06 

17.08 

4.13 

12.95 

S  iH 

8.16 

4.79 

.71 

6 

250 

4.65 

18.01 

5.51 

12.50 

8.45 

4.05 

1.45 

7 

300 

4.92 

17.15 

5.91 

11.24 

— 

8.74 

2.5 

3.00 

8 

350 

5.75 

16.16 

4.31 

11.85 

+a  £ 

9.48 

2.37 

3.13 

9 

400 

4.80 

17.60 

3.30 

14.30 

oo  ° 

10.22 

4.08 

1.42 

10 

450 

3.78 

19.10 

3.70 

15.40 

TH   S 

10.96 

4.44 

1.06 

11 

500 

— 

19.18 

4.98 

14.20 

-.a 

11.70 

2.5 

3.00 

LAYING   OUT   A    DRAIN   OR   SYSTEM          131 

170.  The  depth  of  cut.  —  We  are  now  ready  to  deter- 
mine the  depth  of  the  ditch  at  the  stakes  where  the  depths 
have  not  yet  been  determined.     In  column  6  of  the  table 
we  have  the  elevations  of  all  the  stakes,  while  in  column 
8  we  have  the  elevations  of  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  at  all 
the  stakes.    .If  now  the  elevation  of  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch  at  any  point  is  subtracted  from  the  elevation  of 
the  stake  at  that  point,  the  result  will  be  the  depth  of 
the    ditch.     Make    the    proper    subtractions    and    enter 
results  in  column  9.     Compare  results  with  the  values 
recorded  in  column  9  of  Table  XVI. 

171.  Grade    bars.  —  We   have   thus   determined    the 
depth  the  ditch  must  be  dug  at  each  grade  stake.     It  is 
necessary  to  provide  some  simple  means  (1)  by  which 
we  may  know  just  how  deep  to  dig  at  every  point,  and 
(2)  by  which  we  may  finish  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  so 
that  the  fall  shall  be  constant  from  one  grade  stake  to 
the  next,  above  or  below.     In  Fig.  50  are  shown  what 
are  known  as  grade  bars,  more  commonly  called,  batter 
boards.     These  grade  bars  are  set  up  over  each  grade 
stake,  and  the  top  of  each  grade  bar  is  set  at  the  same 
height  above  the  proposed  bottom  of  the  ditch  and  hori- 
zontally.    This  height  is  usually  5|  feet.     Some  workmen 
prefer  to  have  it  6  feet,  and  some  would  probably  have  it 
5  feet. 

172.  Boning  line   and  boning  rod.  —  A  light   strong 
cord,  drawn  tight  and  resting  on  the  tops  of  these  bars, 
will  stand  parallel  to  the  proposed  bottom  of  the  ditch. 
If,  then,  the  cord  stands  above  the  center  of  the  ditch, 
and  5|  feet  above  the  desired  line  of  bottom,  the  workman 
finishing  the  bottom  can,  with  a  light  rod  bearing  a  5.5- 
foot  mark,  by  placing  the  rod  on  the  bottom  of  the  ditch 
at  any  point,  and  holding  the  rod  perpendicular  with  the 


132 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


II     II 


Ift 


£o 

;  s 


W)  O 

/1-,  ft 


LAYING  OUT  A   DRAIN  OR  SYSTEM         133 

top  against  the  line,  tell  when  he  has  brought  the  bottom 
of  the  ditch  to  the  proper  depth. 

173.  Determining  height  of  bar  above  grade  stake.  — 
The  height  of  the  grade  bar  above  any  stake  is  found  by 
subtracting  the  depth  of  the  ditch  at  that  stake  from  the 
height  the  line  is  to  stand  above  the  bottom  of  the  ditch 
(5.5  feet  in  common  practice).     These  heights  are  shown 
in  column  10,  Table  XVI.     Verify  the  figures  in  column 
10  from  those  in  columns  8  and  9. 

174.  Using  the  data.  —  When  the  work  is  to  be  super- 
vised closely  by  the  person  developing  the  data,  it  is 
sufficient  to  rely  upon  the  tables  as  they  are  completed. 
In  some  cases  the  depth  of  ditch,  height  of  grade  bar, 
with  the  distance  of  the  grade  stake  from  the  outlet,  and 
other   data,    are   recorded   upon   its   finder.     Sometimes 
this  information  is  introduced  upon  the  profile  diagram 
used  in  determining  the  grade,  depth  of  ditch,  and  so  on 
or  upon  one  drawn  for  the  purpose.     (See  Fig.  49.) 


CHAPTER  VII 
CONSTRUCTION 

WITH  the  computations  completed,  we  are  now  ready 
to  dig  the  ditch.  If  up  to  this  point  the  work  has  been 
carefully  and  accurately  done,  the  work  of  construction 
may  proceed  smoothly.  Due  care  must  be  exercised  in 
the  work  that  is  to  follow.  No  part  of  the  work  may  be 
carelessly  done,  if  successful  results  are  to  be  secured. 
Proper  tools  are  important,  but  proper  judgment  and 
careful,  intelligent  work  are  even  more  important.  Here, 
again,  it  must  be  remembered  that  this  work  should  be 
installed  for  generations  of  service.  Economy  in  con- 
struction must  not  be  overlooked. 

175.  Ditching  tools.  —  Three  tools,  especially  made 
for  tile  ditching,  are  the  ditching  spade,  tile  scoop,  and 
tile  hook. 

The  ditching  spade,  Fig.  51,  is  made  in  different  sizes 
for  different  kinds  of  soil.  In  general  the  blade  is  long 
and  narrow,  partly  to  lessen  the  number  of  spade  depths  or 
cuts  necessary  to  dig  the  ditch,  and  partly  that  the  spade 
full  of  soil  is  less  likely  to  slip  from  the  blade  in  lifting  the 
soil  to  the  surface. 

The  work  of  digging  and  finishing  the  ditch  can  be,  and 
often  is,  done  with  common  spade  and  shovel,  though  the 
tile  scoop  is  desirable  for  finishing  the  bottom  of  the  ditch. 

The  tile  scoop,  also  called  drain  cleaner,  Fig.  51,  is 
used  in  shaping  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  to  receive  the  tile. 

134 


CONSTRUCTION 


135 


It  is  made  in  different  sizes,  to  correspond  more 
or  less  closely  to  the  size  of  tile  to  be  laid. 

The  tile  hook  is  used  to  lift  and  properly  set  the 
tile  in  place,  and  is  used  chiefly  when  the  operator 
works  from  the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  consists 
of  a  long  wooden  handle,  carrying  a  rectangular 
hook  of  J-inch  round  iron  10  inches  long.  (Fig. 
52.) 

It  is  desirable  also  to  have  a  common  spade,  a 
common    long    handle    shovel, 
and  sometimes  a  pick,  especially 
when  a  heavy  clay  subsoil  or 
stone  is  likely  to  be  encountered. 

It  will  be  necessary  also  to 
have  a  few  hundred  feet  of 
strong  light  cord,  a  few  light 
sharp  stakes  2  feet  in  length, 
and  material  to  be  used  in  set- 
ting grade  bars. 

176.  Horse  and  power 
machines.  —  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  horse  and  power  machines 
now  on  the  market  that  may 
sometimes  be  used  to  advantage  FIG.  51  —Ditching tools,  a, a, 

.  and  b,   ditching   spades ;    c, 

in     tarm     drainage.       On     these,        tile  scoop,  or  drain  cleaner. 

Fippin  writes : 

"  The  use  of  horse  and  machine  powers  reduces  the 
difficulty  of  construction  somewhat.  If  the  land  is  very 
stony  or  full  of  roots,  hand  labor  must  be  employed,  per- 


FIG.  52.  —  Tile  hook. 


136  LAND   DRAINAGE 

haps  with  the  use  of  dynamite.  On  land  that  is  not  too 
stony,  the  ditching  plow  drawn  by  one  or  more  teams  is 
very  helpful.  There  are  on  the  market  a  number  of  plows 
that  are  very  useful  for  this  purpose.  Next  in  complexity 
is  the  large  ditching  plow  equipped  with  wheels  and  drawn 
by  several  teams.  This  plow  tears  up  the  soil  and  ele- 
vates it  out  of  the  ditch.  There  are  two  or  three  machines 
of  this  type,  such  as  the  Cyclone  and  the  Bennett. 
Finally,  there  are  the  large  engine-driven  ditching  tractors, 
including  the  Buckeye,  the  Austin,  and  the  Pawling 
machines,  which  cost  upward  of  twenty-five  hundred 
dollars. 

"  The  large  plow  is  suitable  for  the  individual  farmer 
who  has  a  considerable  area  to  drain  and  has  the  horses 
for  other  purposes.  The  tractor  ditcher  costs  so  much 
that  it  is  seldom  a  single  farm  is  large  enough  to  justify 
its  purchase.  It  may  be  purchased  conjointly  by  a 
number  of  farmers  who  have  drains  to  be  constructed, 
or  it  may  be  purchased  by  one  person  and  the  ditches 
may  be  dug  by  contract.  Machines  of  this  kind  have 
been  put  into  several  communities  for  this  purpose." 

177.  Setting  up  grade  bars.  —  This  is  sometimes  put  off 
till  after  the  digging  is  well  under  way.  The  objection  to 
this  delay  is  that  the  grade  stakes  are  likely  to  be  dis- 
turbed by  the  workman  when  the  digging  begins. 

The  grade  bar,  sometimes  called  batter  board,  should 
be  4  to  6  feet  long,  of  f-inch  material,  with  one  straight 
edge.  With  each  bar  there  must  be  two  stakes,  pref- 
erably J  inch  by  4  inches,  sharpened  at  one  end,  and 
sufficiently  long  to  stand  higher,  when  they  are  driven 
into  the  ground,  than  the  height  of  the  bar  at  that  stake. 
The  two  stakes  should  be  driven  firmly  into  the  ground, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  ditch,  so  that  they  will  stand  out 


CONSTRUCTION 


137 


at  least  one  foot  from  the  edge,  and  so  that  together  with 
the  grade  stake,  they  shall  stand  in  a  straight  line  at  right 
angles  to  the  ditch. 

When  the  stakes  are  in  place,  a  leveling  rod  should  be 
set  upon  the  grade  stake.  Then  the  grade  bar,  straight 
edge  up,  should  be  placed  against  the  stakes,  with  its 
upper  edge  at  the  proper  height  as  measured  upon  the 


FIG.  53.  —  Nailing  a  grade  bar  in  place. 

rod.  By  the  use  of  a  spirit  level,  laid  upon  the  upper 
edge  of  the  bar,  the  bar  is  brought  to  horizontal  and  should 
then  be  held  firmly  against  the  stakes  and  nailed  in  place. 
(See  Fig.  53.)  All  the- bars  should  be  nailed  upon  the 
same  side  of  their  stakes,  that  is,  all  facing  toward  the 
outlet,  or  all  facing  toward  the  upper  end  of  the  drain. 
The  proper  height  of  each  bar  above  its  grade  stake  is 
found  in  column  10  of  Table  XVI. 

178.  Checking.  —  When  the  bars  of  any  section  of  the 
drain  are  up,  their  upper  edges  should  lie  in  the  same  plane, 
as  one  sights  over  them.  If  the  upper  edge  of  any  bar 


138  LAND   DRAINAGE 

does  not  lie  in  this  plane,  a  mistake  has  been  made  some- 
where, either  in  the  computations  or  in  the  work.  The 
mistake  should  be  found  at  once  and  corrected.  (See 
Figs.  50  and  54.) 

179.  Begin  the  work  at  the  outlet.  —  The  work  of 
digging  the  ditch  should  begin  at  the  outlet  and  should 
proceed  toward  the  upper  end.  A  careful  observation  of 


FIG.  54.  —  Showing  line  of  grade  bars  in  place  ready  for  digging  to  begin. 
Observe  also  the  tile  lying  in  place.  Those  in  the  immediate  fore- 
ground are  the  tile  for  the  main. 

certain  details  will  undoubtedly  make  the  work  easier 
for  the  beginner. 

180.  Opening  the  ditch.  —  A  line  should  be  stretched 
about  two  inches  out  from  the  grade  stakes  to  mark  the 
edge  of  the  ditch,  and  along  this  line  the  surface  should 
be  cut  three  inches  deep  with  a  sharp  spade.  The  chief 
purpose  of  the  line  is  to  insure  a  straight  edge  for  the 
ditch.  This  edge  should  be  carefully  worked  to. 

Usually  it  is  not  necessary,  except  with  beginners,  to 
stretch  a  line  to  locate  the  other  edge  of  the  ditch.  The 
spade  should  be  used  to  establish  it  by  cutting  about  three 
inches  into  the  surface. 

Care  should  be  exercised  not  to  open  the  ditch  too  wide. 


CONSTRUCTION 


139 


The  professional  ditch 
digger  seldom  opens  a 
3-foot  ditch  more  than 
10  to  11  inches  wide, 
and  16  inches  would  be 
abundantly  wide  for 
a  6-foot  ditch.  The 
wider  the  ditch,  the 
more  soil  must  be 
handled.  (See  Fig.  56.) 

181.  Removing  the 
soil.  —  With  the  edges 
of  the  ditch  established, 
the  removal  of  the  top 
soil  begins,  and  in  this 
work  a  common  spade 
or  shovel  is  generally 
used,  for  one  cut  deep. 
Several  rods  of  ditch 
may  be  opened  in  this 
way.  The  next  cut  is 
made  with  the  ditching 
spade,  following  the 
first  cut  its  entire  length. 

In  like  manner  a 
second  cut  will  be 
made,  and  as  many 
more  as  may  be  neces- 
sary (using  the  ditch- 
ing spade)  to  bring  the 
ditch  to  within  a  few 
inches  of  the  proper 
depth.  It  is  usually 


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d      -  ° 


ff! 


140  LAND   DRAINAGE 

best  to  throw  all  the  soil  to  one  side  of  the  ditch.  Some- 
times the  top  soil  is  thrown  upon  one  side  and  the  lower 
soil  upon  the  other. 

After  any  cut,  if  for  any  reason  a  considerable  quantity 
of  loose  soil  lies  in  the  ditch,  it  should  be  removed  with  a 
long-handled  shovel  before  the  next  cut  is  begun,  or,  if 
the  last  cut  has  been  made,  before  starting  to  use  the  tile 
scoop.  (See  Fig.  55.) 

182.  Finishing  the  ditch.  —  Before  beginning  the  last 
cut  with  the  ditching  spade,  the  boning  line  should  be 
tightly  stretched  over  the  top  of  the  bars  and  just  over 
the  straight  edge  of  the  ditch,  and  the  rod  brought 
into  use  to  guard  against  digging  the  ditch  too  deep 
at  any  point.  If  in  stretching  the  line,  the  ends  are 
tied  to  the  end  grade  bars,  braces  should  be  placed  in 
front  of  the  stakes;  otherwise  the  bars  and  their 
stakes  will  be  drawn  out  of  place,  and  the  line  will  be 
both  sagged  and  lowered.  A  better  way  is  to  drive  a 
stake  into  the  ground  beyond  the  end  bars,  wrap  the 
line  once  around  each  end  grade  bar,  and  then  tie  to 
the  stake  just  driven. 

When  the  ditch  has  been  dug  to  within  two  inches  of 
the  bottom,  as  above  described,  the  line  above  the  bars 
should  be  carefully  moved  out  over  the  center  of  the  ditch, 
and  again  sufficiently  tightened  to  remove  all  sagging. 
From  time  to  time  the  line  should  be  examined  and,  if 
sagging  is  resulting  from  the  stretching  of  the  line,  it 
should  be  retightened.  With  the  tile  scoop  and  rod,  a 
trough  or  hollow  is  dug  along  the  center  of  the  ditch  and 
finished  so  that  at  all  points  it  shall  measure  just  5.5  feet 
below  the  line.  This  requires  careful  work  and  frequent 
use  of  the  boning  rod  bearing  the  5.5-foot  mark,  pre- 
viously mentioned.  (See  Fig.  56.) 


CONSTRUCTION  141 

183.  Correcting  depth.  —  If  at  any  point  too  much 
earth  is  removed  and  the  ditch  made  too  deep  thereby,  a 
sufficient  amount  must  be  returned  and  carefully  molded 
into  place  with  the  scoop,  to  bring  the  bottom  up  to  grade. 
The  less  the  fall,  the  greater  is  the  care  that  must  be 
exercised  in  finishing  the  bottom.  This  part  of  the  work 
is  not  difficult,  although  it  requires  care  and  judgment. 
It  is  sometimes  done  from  the  surface.  Usually,  how- 
ever, the  workman  stands  in  the  ditch. 


FIG.  56.  —  End  section  of  ditch,  showing  in  diagram  the  bottom  of  ditch 
formed  to  receive  the  tile.  Note  the  width  of  the  top  of  the  ditch 
as  compared  with  the  12-inch  length  of  tile  resting  on  its  edges. 

184.  Laying  the  tile.  —  The  laying  of  the  tile  should 
begin  at  the  outlet  and  proceed  toward  the  upper  end.     It 
is  usually  best  to  lay  the  sections  of  tile  as  rapidly  as  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch  is  made  ready  with  the  tile  scoop  to 
receive  them.     Some  workmen  lay  the  tile  by  hand  and 
some  use  the  tile  hook;   some  stand  upon  the  surface  to 
finish  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  and  to  lay  the  tile. 

185.  Making  close  joints.  —  It  will  be  found  that  the 
ends  of  the  tile  are  frequently  not  square,  —  are  not  at 
right  angles  to  the  sides,  and  that  the  tile  is  sometimes 
warped,  or  bowed,  thus  throwing  the  ends  out  of  square. 
There  are  sometimes  little  inequalities  in  the  bottom  of 


142  LAND   DRAINAGE 

the  ditch.  Because  of  these  three  facts  it  will  be  found 
that  if  a  lot  of  tile  is  laid  promiscuously,  end  to  end 
in  the  hollow  at  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  many  of  the 
joints  will  be  so  open  that  sand  will  very  readily  drop 
through  into  the  tile  drain;  consequently  if  the  tile  are 
left  in  this  position,  and  the  ditch , filled,  the  drain  will  be 
clogged  in  a  very  short  time.  There  should  be  no  open 
joints. 

"  The  tile  is  sometimes  clogged  by  the  development  of 
roots  that  gain  entrance  through  the  joints  of  the  tile. 
The  depth  at  which  the  tile  are  laid  has  very  little  to  do 
with  this  difficulty.  It  is  determined  by  the  presence  of 
a  perpetual  flow  of  -water  in  the  tile  from  some  spring.  In 
dry  periods  this  water  seeps  from  the  joints  and  moistens 
the  soil,  which  condition  attracts  the  roots.  Protection 
of  the  upper  half  of  the  joint  against  the  admission  of 
silt  is  some  aid  in  preventing  the  entrance  of  roots  into 
the  tile."  — FIPPIN. 

186.  Fitting  the  joints.  —  If,  when  a  section  of  tile 
is  laid  in  place,  it  does  not  fit  tightly  against  that  al- 
ready laid,  it  is  usually  found  that  by  rolling  it  to  the 
right  or  left,  it  can  be  made  to  fit  so  tightly  as  practically 
to  prevent  the  passage  of  soil  particles  except  quicksand 
or  fine  silt.     Sometimes  this  cannot  be  done,  in  which 
case  a  new  piece  of  tile  must  be  substituted.     A  piece 
that  cannot  be  made  to  fit  in  one  place  will  frequently 
readily  fit  in  another  place  in  the  same  line  of  tile. 

187.  Blinding.  —  As  the  work  of  laying  the  tile  pro- 
gresses, the  workman  should  shovel  in  a  sufficient  amount 
of  loose  soil  to  settle  down  about  the  sides  and  partly,  or 
wholly,  cover  the  tile.     This  holds  the  tile  in  place  until 
the  filling  can  begin.     Sometimes,  instead  of  shoveling 
in  the  soil  from  the  surface,  some  earth  is  loosened  from 


CONSTRUCTION  143 

the  walls  of  the  ditch  to  fall  upon  the  tile  and  accomplish 
the  same  results.  This  covering  and  anchoring  of  the 
tile  is  called  blinding.  (See  Fig.  55.) 

188.  Closing  the  upper  end  of  the  drain.  —  When  the 
last  tile  of  any  drain  is  laid,  a  stone,  or  piece  of  brick,  or 
pieces  of  broken  tile,  or  other  solid  material  should  be 
laid  against  the  upper  end  and  earth  shoveled  against  it 
to  hold  it  in  place.     This,  later,  prevents  the  soil  from 
working  into  the  end  of  the  tile. 

189.  Filling  the  ditch.  —  The  filling  may  proceed  as 
rapidly  as  the  tile  are  laid  and  anchored.     It  may  be 
deferred  a  few  days,  or  several  days,  depending  upon 
circumstances.     Delay  is  likely  to  result  in  caving  of 
the  walls.     In  the  cases  of  mains  or  sub-mains,  the  com- 
plete filling  is  delayed  until  the  laying  of  the  tile  in  the 
laterals  is  started.     Usually  the  grade  bars  are  removed 
before  the  filling  begins.     Sometimes  the  filling  is  done 
by  hand ;    sometimes  it  is  hastened  and  cheapened  by 
the  use  of  the  plow  or  scraper.     When  a  plow  is  used,  an 
evener  must  be  provided  that  is  sufficiently  long  to  allow 
the  horses  to  walk  on  opposite  sides  of  the  ditch.     When 
the  plow  is  used,  the  bars  and  stakes  must  first  be  removed. 
The  team  is  driven  the  length  of  the  ditch,  or  for  a  con- 
siderable part  of  it  at  a  time,  and  the  soil  is  plowed  back 
into  the  ditch. 

Only  the  board  scraper  is  convenient  for  filling.  The 
team  works  on  one  side  of  the  ditch  and  the  man  and  the 
scraper  on  the  other.  A  chain  or  rope  must  be  used  be- 
tween the  team  and  scraper,  which  must  be  long  enough 
so  that  the  team  shall  not  be  backed  sufficiently  near  the 
ditch  to  result  in  accident. 

When  the  plow  or  scraper  is  used,  it  is  usually  necessary 
for  a  workman  with  a  shovel  to  finish  the  work. 


144 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


190.  Finishing  the  outlet.  —  The  outlet  of  the  main 
should  be  completed  with  two  objects  in  view : 

1.  Provision  should  be  made  against  its  destruction 
by  frost,  flood,  tramping  of  live-stock,  and  the  like. 


^ 

^%:  •fe^V^^X^)^ 


FIG.  57.  —  Showing  the  way  in  which  bolts  may  be  imbedded  in  the 
concrete  or  other  outlet  protection  by  which  strips  of  wood  may  be 
bolted  in  place  to  carry  screen  to  protect  mouth  of  outlet  from  vermin, 
etc.  This  shows  piece  of  screen  nailed  over  the  outlet.  The  width 
of  face  of  outlet  will  depend  much  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
height,  and  slope.  The  face  in  this  figure  is  but  18  inches  wide. 
Ordinarily  the  face  proper  should  probably  range  from  30  to  60 
inches. 

2.  Usually  it  is  best  to  replace  the  lower  8  to  12  feet 
of  tile  with  glazed  sewer  pipe,  or  with  a  piece  of  cast- 
iron  pipe  of  proper  size.  (See  Fig.  55.)  This  should  be 
done,  of  course,  when  the  work  of  laying  the  tile  begins. 


CONSTRUCTION 


145 


To  prevent  the  washing  or  tramping  of  earth  about  the 
outlet,  and  to  give  strength,  a  wall  of  masonry  or  concrete 
should  be  built  something  as  shown  in  Fig.  55. 


FIG.  58.  — Two  devices  for  protecting  drain  outlets.  A,  trap  of  galvan- 
ized iron  hung  by  common  door  hinges.  The  serious  objection  to 
the  trap  is  that  it  interferes  with  the  entrance  of  air  to  the  tile  sys- 
tem. B,  screen  of  j-inch  iron  rods,  hung,  in  this  case,  by  chain 
links.  Devices  of  this  nature  are  especially  desirable  when  surface 
water  is  let  into  the  tile  system. 

191.  Screen.  —  Means  should  be  provided  to  prevent 
vermin,  such  as  rats,  from  entering  the  mouth  of  the  drain. 
To  accomplish  this,  a  screen  of  woven  wire,  or  a  grate  of 
iron  bars  mounted  on  or  in  a  strong  wooden  frame,  should 
be  firmly  set  against  the  outlet.  (See  Fig.  57.)  It  will 


146  LAND  DRAINAGE 

be  well,  in  building  the  cement  work,  to  set  in  bolts  to 
hold  the  frame  carrying  the  screen  or  bars  in  place,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  57. 

192.  Trap. — A  trap  of  galvanized  iron,  like  that 
shown  in  Fig.  58,  will  prove  effective.  A  better  device 
is  that  of  a  screen  of  i-inch  iron  rods  suspended  by 
hinge  or  chain  links.  The  hinged  trap  or  screen  is  espe- 
cially desirable  when  surface  water  enters  the  tile  above, 
by  way  of  silt-basins  or  otherwise. 

193.  Laterals.  —  As  has  already  been  stated,  the  work 
of  placing  laterals  does  not  differ  materially  from  that  of 
laying  single  lines  of  tile  or  mains.     The  leveling  is  done 
in  the  same  way,  excepting  that  usually  the  lateral  con- 
nects with  the  main  at  one  of  the  original  grade  stakes. 
This  is  not  necessary,  but  it  is  convenient.     This  grade 
stake  becomes  stake  1  of  the  lateral,  and  its  elevation  as 
determined  for  the  main  is  retained  as  that  of  stake  1  of 
the  lateral.     This  is  desirable  since  by  it  the  elevations 
of  all  points  in  the  system  are  referred  to  the  same  datum 
plane,  and  a  basis  is  thus  given  for  comparing  the  actual 
elevation  of  the  lateral,  or  any  point  in  the  lateral,  with 
any  other  point  in  the  system. 

194.  Leveling    for    laterals.  —  The    leveling    for    the 
laterals  is  often  done  immediately  after  that  for  the  main 
is  completed.     Sometimes  it  is  deferred  till  the  work  of 
digging  and  laying  the  tile  of  the  main  is  nearly  finished. 
In  the  former  case  the  levels  for  a  lateral  may  help  to 
determine  the  proper  depth  of  the  main,  and  may  thus 
increase  the  efficiency  of  the  lateral.     In  the  latter  case, 
the  danger  from  inaccuracies,  due  to  disturbing  grade 
stakes  along  the  laterals  after  the  leveling  has  been  done, 
is  greatly  lessened. 

The  depth  of  the  outlet  of  the  lateral  is  determined  by 


CONSTRUCTION  147 

the  depth  of  the  main  at  the  point  of  connection.  (See 
paragraphs  197-199.)  This  fact  may  modify  both  the 
grade  and  the  general  depth  of  the  lateral. 

195.  Making  provision  for  lateral  outlet  when  laying 
the  main.  —  As  the  digging  of  the  main  proceeds,  and 
as  the  tile  are  laid,  provision  should  be  made  for  the  outlet 


FIG.  59.  —  Five-inch  tile  with  small  opening,  and  hammer  used  in  mak- 
ing the  opening. 

of  each  lateral.  The  connection  should  be  introduced 
and  an  obstruction  placed  over  the  outer  end  till  the  laying 
of  the  lateral  is  begun. 

196.  Joining  laterals  to  mains.  —  Mention  has  already 
been  made  of  the  angle  at  which  the  laterals  should  be 
brought  to  the  main.     Three  general  methods  of  making 
connections  are  suggested ;   namely,  side,  top,  and  angle 
connection. 

197.  Side  connection.  —  By  the  first  method  the  lateral 
discharges  into  the  side  of  the  main.     In  this  case  the 
center  of  the  lateral  should  come  even  with  the  center  of 
the  main.     This  means  that  if  the  lateral  has  a  smaller 


148  LAND   DRAINAGE 

diameter  than  the  main  tile,  the  bottom  of  the  lateral 
ditch  must  be  planned  to  approach  the  bottom  of  the 
main  ditch  at  a  height  of  one-half  the  difference  between 
the  outside  diameter  of  the  main  and  of  the  lateral  tile. 
To  make  connection,  a  hole  should  be  picked  in  the  wall 
of  the  main  at  the  proper  point  (see  Fig.  59),  and  made 
of  sufficient  size  and  shape  to  permit  the  entrance  of  the 


FIG.  60.  —  Five-inch  tile  shown  in  Fig.  59,  with  the  opening  enlarged  to 
receive  3-inch  tile.  The  3-inch  tile  is  shown  with  end  shaped  to 
set  in  the  opening  in  the  larger  tile.  In  this  particular  case  the 
opening  and  trimming  are  done  for  a  90-degree  connection.  A  60- 
degree  connection  would  require  a  larger  opening  and  more  trimming 
of  the  3-inch  tile. 

lateral  tile  at  the  proper  angle.  The  end  of  the  lateral 
should  be  rounded  back  and  shaped  so  that  the  end, 
when  the  tile  is  in  place,  shall  stand  flush  with  the  inner 
wall  of  the  main.  (See  Figs.  60  and  61.)  When  the 
lateral  thus  fitted  is  set  into  place,  fragments  of  broken 
tile  should  be  carefully  laid  in  over  the  joint  and  earth 
packed  about  it.  This  is  to  prevent  the  working  in  of 
soil  material. 

198.   Top  connection.  —  By  the  second  method,   the 
lateral  discharges  its  water  down  through  the  top  of  the 


CONSTRUCTION  149 

main.  In  this  case  an  opening  is  made  through  the  top 
of  the  main  and  through  the  bottom  of  the  lateral.  In 
digging  the  lateral  ditch,  the  bottom  should  stand  suffi- 
ciently high  above  that  of  the  main  ditch,  so  that  the 
center  of  the  lateral  tile  shall  stand  even  with  the  top  of 
the  inside  diameter  of  the  main  tile.  The  end  of  the 
lateral  tile  should  project  over  the  main  and  should  be 
plugged  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  soil  material.  (See 


FIG.  61.  —  Shows  the  connection  when  the  3-inch  tile  is  fitted  in  place. 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  connection  is  a  90-degree  connection. 

Fig.  62.)  The  same  precautions  should  be  taken  as  indi- 
cated above  to  close  the  joint  sufficiently  to  prevent  the 
soil  from  working  through. 

199.  Angles.  —  Some  manufacturers  of  glazed  tile 
are  now  manufacturing,  also,  angles  and  T's  in  various 
sizes  for  making  connections  between  drains.  When 
these  can  be  secured  they  are  desirable,  since  they  reduce 
labor  and  insure  good  connections.  In  most  cases  these 
would  be  side  connections.  (See  Fig.  63.)  The  differ- 
ence in  elevation  of  bottom  of  main  and  that  of  the  con- 


150 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


necting  lateral  will  be  governed,  as  above,  by  the  sizes  of 
tiles  used. 

200.   Making    openings    through    tile.  —  An    opening 
through  the  wall  of  a  section  of  tile  is  easiest  made  with 


FIG.  62.  —  A  top  connection  in  cross-section.     A  stone  closes  the  lower 
end  of  the  lateral. 

what  is  called  a  tile  pick.  With  care  the  opening  can  be 
made  with  a  small-headed  hammer,  such  as  is  shown  in 
Fig.  59,  by  first  knocking  a  small  opening  in  the  wall 
about  where  the  center  of  the  finished  opening  should  be, 
and  then  carefully  chipping  away  the  edges  of  the  opening 
by  light  blows  with  the  hammer  until  it  is  made  suffi- 


FIG.  63.  —  A,  a  vitrified  6-inch  tile  with  angle  for  connection  for  4-inch 
lateral.  T,  section  of  6-inch  vitrified  tile  with  T  for  4-inch  connec- 
tion. The  other  sections  are  of  common  tile. 

ciently  large.  A  small  hammer  is  much  to  be  preferred 
to  a  larger  one  in  this  work.  The  larger  the  hammer,  the 
greater  the  danger  of  cracking  the  tile  from  the  jarring. 
With  the  smaller  sizes  of  tile,  the  section  should  be  held 
in  one  hand  while  the  opening  is  being  made  with  the 
hammer.  (See  Figs.  59,  60,  and  61.) 
201.  Designating  the  sub-mains  and  laterals  in  the 


CONSTRUCTION  151 

records.  —  In  keeping  field  notes  it  is  desirable  to  have 
some  definite  method  of  indicating  mains,  sub-mains,  and 
the  several  laterals.  The  main  is  usually  designated 
simply  as  main.  If  there  is  more  than  one  system  of  tile 
drains  on  a  farm,  the  systems  should  be  numbered  or 
lettered,  so  that  the  main  of  any  system  would  be  indi- 
cated, main  of  "  system  A  "  or  "  system  1."  A  sub-main 
is  simplest  designated  by  the  stake  in  the  main  at  which  it 
discharges  its  water.  If  a  sub-main  united  with  a  main 
at  stake  5  of  the  main,  it  would  be  designated  as  "  sub- 
main  5."  A  lateral  is  simplest  indicated  by  the  stake  of 
the  sub-main  or  main  at  which  it  empties  its  water.  A 
lateral  uniting  with  a  main  at  stake  11  of  the  main  may 
be  designated  "lateral  11."  A  lateral  emptying  its 
water  at  stake  13  of  a  sub-main  would  be  designated 
lateral  from  stake  13  of  sub-main,  if  there  was  but  one 
sub-main;  if  more  than  one,  the  number  of  the  sub- 
main  would  need  to  be  indicated.  (See  Table  XX.) 


CHAPTER  VIII 
OTHER  CONDITIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

VARIOUS  questions  arise  in  the  course  of  the  installing 
of  a  tile  system.  In  many  cases  the  problem  will  suggest 
its  own  solution.  In  other  cases,  solutions  can  be  offered 
only  by  those  who  have  theoretical  knowledge  of  condi- 
tions or  who  have  had  a  large  practical  experience.  The 
science  and  art  of  drainage  have  been  matters  of  growth, 
and  of  rather  slow  growth.  There  are  many  questions 
yet  to  solve.  A  few  of  the  more  common  questions  will 
be  discussed  in  this  chapter. 

202.  Underground  outlets.  —  It  sometimes  happens 
that  a  low  area  requires  draining  but  has  no  outlet  through 
which  the  water  can  be  taken  off,  or  is  surrounded  by 
ground  so  uniformly  high  as  to  make  it  expensive,  or 
even  impossible,  to  secure  a  proper  outlet.  Not  infre- 
quently it  will  be  found  that  the  soil  of  this  low  area  is 
underlaid  by  a  heavy  clay,  and  that  the  clay  in  turn  is 
underlaid  by  an  open  gravel,  or  an  open  gravelly  sand, 
in  which  the  water-table  stands  at  a  considerable  distance 
below  the  clay.  Under  such  conditions,  if  a  well  three  feet 
in  diameter  is  dug  through  the  clay  into  the  gravel,  all 
the  water  from  this  low  area  may  be  drained  into  the 
well,  and  from  this  well  the  water  will  disappear  down 
through  the  gravel.  The  well  should  be  dug  to  a  depth 
of  at  least  one  foot  below  the  clay,  and  should  be  filled  with 
field  stone  to  above  the  point  where  the  outlet  of  the  drain 

152 


OTHER   CONDITIONS  AND   PROBLEMS        153 


is  turned  into  it.  The  top  stones  should  be  small,  and 
upon  these  should  be  placed  gravel,  then  sand,  then  the 
regular  soil  of  the  field.  The  writer  has  in  mind  one  such 
arrangement  in  which  a  tile  system,  draining  something 
like  160  acres,  discharges  its  water  and  has  been  in  success- 
ful operation  for  many  years.  In  depressions  of  limited 
area,  such  a  well  at  the  lowest  point  and  with  the  stone 
coming  to  the  top  is 
frequently  sufficient  to 
carry  away  the  excess 
of  water  without  the 
aid  of  tile.  (See  Figs. 
64  and  65.) 

203.  Drain  heads.  — 
Instead    of    construct- 
ing  a    well,    as    above 
described,  the  practice 
is  becoming  somewhat 
general  of  installing  a 
vertical  system  of  tile. 
Six-inch  tile  are  usually 
used,   and   upon   these 
is  sometimes  set  what 
is   known    as    a    drain 
head,   a  device  rather 

commonly  advertised  in  agricultural  papers.  When  the 
vertical  tile  system  is  used,  the  horizontal  drains  are 
dispensed  with.  Instead,  a  number  of  vertical  systems 
are  introduced,  if  one  is  not  sufficient  to  drain  the  whole 
area. 

204.  Drainage  by  wells.  —  Vertical  drainage,  probably 
beginning  in  formations  of  drift  origin,  has  been  extended 
to  soils  overlying  other  than  drift  deposits. 


FIG.  64.  —  The  way  of  constructing  well 
for  drainage  downward  into  under- 
lying gravel. 


154 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


FIG.  65.  —  Plan,  described  in  Bulletin  229,  Wisconsin  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, for  removing  drainage  water  by  means  of  a  gravel-filled  well 
and  tile. 

The  following  facts  are  gathered  from  one  of  the  Water 
Supply  Papers  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey.1 

1  Fuller.     Water  Supply  Paper  No.  258.     1910.     U.  S.  Geol. 
Survey. 


OTHER   CONDITIONS   AND   PROBLEMS        155 

In  Michigan  and  Minnesota,  drainage  outlets  are  secured 
by  way  of  wells  drilled  into  sandstone ;  in  Georgia,  Indiana, 
Kentucky,  Tennessee  and  Virginia,  and  other  states, 
by  the  use  of  drilled  wells  in  limestone. 

The  efficiency  of  such  a  drainage  well  is  usually  depend- 
ent upon  the  depth  of  the  well.  It  is  dependent  also  upon 
the  nature  of  the  material ;  for  it  varies  with  the  same 
material.  In  gravelly  sand  and  sandstone  the  size  of 
the  openings  (pore  space)  rather  than  the  percentage  of 
pore  space  is  important.  In  limestone  the  size  of  crevices 
is  the  important  item. 

205.  Quicksand.  —  It  sometimes  happens  that  quick- 
sand is  encountered  at  or  near  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  in 


FIG.  66.  —  Steel  shield  used  to  hold  back  quicksand ;    28  inches  long, 
12  inches  high,  width  governed  by  size  of  ditch. 

laying  the  tile.  In  such  case  it  will  usually  be  necessary 
to  use  some  kind  of  guard  to  hold  back  the  quicksand  while 
the  bottom  of  the  ditch  is  being  completed  to  receive  the 
tile.  Figure  66  shows  a  shield  of  iron  used  for  this  purpose. 
In  the  use  of  the  shield,  the  ditch  is  dug  to  the  quicksand. 
The  shield  is  then  placed  so  as  to  include  that  portion  of 
the  ditch  in  which  the  next  sections  of  tile  are  to  be  laid. 
The -workman  can  usually  press  it  down  into  the  quick- 


156  LAND   DRAINAGE 

sand  by  his  own  weight  sufficiently  to  bring  it  even  with 
or  a  little  below  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  when  it  is  com- 
plete ;  or  if  his  weight  is  not  sufficient,  he  may  remove  a 
portion  of  the  sand  and  then  place  his  weight  upon  the 
shield  and  lower  it  little  by  little  to  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch.  With  a  tile  scoop,  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  can 
then  be  properly  formed  and  the  tile  laid  in  place.  The 
shield  is  then  lifted  and  moved  ahead  sufficiently  to  pre- 
pare the  bottom  for  the  next  section.  It  would  not  be 
difficult  to  make  a  shield  of  wood  that  could  be  operated 
in  much  the  same  way. 

Where  the  ditch  is  deep  and  the  quicksand  is  found  to 
stand  to  some  height  above  the  bottom  of  the  ditch, 
planks  or  boards  should  be  used  to  hold  the  banks  from 
falling  in  and  great  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  accidents 
from  caving. 

206.  Protection  to  joints  against  quicksand.  —  When 
tile  is  laid  in  quicksand  or  in  very  fine  ordinary  sand  or 
silt,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  provide  some  means  to  pre- 
vent the  fine  particles  from  entering  the  tile  through  the 
joints.     It  is  sometimes  recommended  that  marsh  hay 
be  laid  over  the  tile  before  any  soil  is  introduced  into 
the  ditch.     Strips  of  strong  building  paper  are  sometimes 
laid  over  the  joints  before  the  earth  is  introduced.     An 
inch  or  more  of  top  soil  or  fine  clay,  laid  over  the  joints, 
will  prove  fully  as  satisfactory  as  grass  or  paper,  and  much 
more  enduring. 

207.  Boggy  and  springy  places.  —  Sometimes  in  laying 
tile  through  muck  soils,  springs  are  discovered  which  cause 
such  a  degree  of  softness  in  the  muck  at  the  bottom  of 
the  ditch  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  lay  the  tile  with  any 
degree  of  evenness.     In  such  cases  it  is  recommended  by 
successful    drainage    engineers    that    the    ditch    be    dug 


OTHER   CONDITIONS   AND   PROBLEMS         157 

sufficiently  deep  to  lay  a  six-inch  board  in  the  bottom  so 
that  the  upper  surface  of  the  board  shall  lie  at  the  proper 
depth  and  upon  this  the  tile  be  laid  and  the  earth  intro- 
duced about  the  tile.  Boards  thus  used  will  resist  decay 
for  many  years. 

208.  To  remove  excessive  surface  water.  —  It  some- 
times happens  that  the  topography  of  a  tile-drained  area  is 
marked  by  depressions  which,  in  times  of  heavy  rain, 
become  filled  with  surface  water.  This  means  that  an 
amount  of  water  which,  if  distributed  uniformly  over 
the  drained  area,  would  be  removed  in  reasonable  time 
by  the  tile  system,  must,  because  of  the  relatively  greater 
quantity  over  a  restricted  low  area,  require  an  unusual 
or  extended  time  to  make  its  way  through  the  soil  to  the 
drains.  The  result  may  easily  be  the  drowning  of  a  crop, 
injury  to  the  structure  of  the  soil,  the  washing  away  of 
plant-food,  or  the  destruction  of  food  by  denitrification. 
Again,  a  tile-drained  area  may  lie  subject  to  the  overflow 
from  surface  drainage  from  adjacent  higher  areas,  or  ad- 
jacent slopes,  and  therefore  to  the  same  consequent  ills 
as  those  named  above.  Both  Elliott  and  Waring  suggest 
provision  for  the  quick  removal  of  such  surface  water  by 
ducts,  or  other  means,  by  which  the  surface  water  is  con- 
veyed below  ground  to  the  tile.  Wherever,  in  an  area 
to  be  tile-drained,  surface  depressions  occur,  in  which  the 
surface  water  may  gather  in  large  quantities,  the  system 
should  be  planned  so  that  a  main  or  lateral  crosses  it. 
If  a  lateral  crosses  the  area,  and  the  area  is  of  consid- 
erable size,  the  size  of  the  tile  in  the  lateral  should  be 
larger  than  that  used  in  the  ordinary  lateral  of  similar 
length. 

To  provide  means  for  the  passage  of  the  water  from  the 
surface  to  the  tile,  one  of  the  schemes  suggested  is  to  lay 


158 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


the  tile,  for  3  to  8  feet,  with  the  upper  joint  very  open, 
and  then  to  fill  the  ditch  with  broken  stones  of  3  to  4 
inches  in  diameter,  or  with  cobble  stones  of  the  same 
dimension.  Another  is  to  construct  a  shallow  silt-basin 
of  rather  large  diameter  to  receive  the  excess  of  sur- 
face water,  with  a  siphon  to  remove  this  water  to  the 
tile  below.  A  shallow  open  ditch  gathers  the  surface 


FIG.  67.  —  Plan  for  permitting  excess  of  surface   water  to  reach  tile 
drain  by  filling  a  section  of  ditch  with  crushed  stone  or  cobble  stone. 

water  and  delivers  it  to  the  silt-basin.      (See  Figs.  67 
and  68.) 

209.  Tile  in  muck  soil  should  be  laid  deep.  —  Muck 
soils  settle  rapidly  after  they  are  tile-drained.  This 
settling  is  due,  in  part,  to  a  natural  shrinkage  because  of 
the  reduction  of  moisture  present,  and  probably  to  chemi- 
cal changes  which  take  place  because  of  the  more  ready 
access  of  air  to  the  organic  material.  These  changes  are 
commonly  spoken  of  as  oxidation.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
years,  the  surface  of  a  tiled  muck  area  may  have  settled 
until  the  tile  lies  within  the  frost  zone,  and  not  infre- 
quently lies  so  near  the  surface  as  to  be  disturbed  by  the 
plow-point.  The  effect  of  freezing  is  to  shale  the  tile,  if  of 
the  ordinary  clay  kind,  even  to  the  extent  of  causing  them 


OTHER  CONDITIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 


159 


to  collapse.  One  considerable  area  of  muck  soil  on  the 
Michigan  Agricultural  College  farm  had  so  seriously  settled 
in  this  way  in  twelve  years,  that  the  tile  in  the  whole  area 
had  to  be  relaid.  Except  where  truck-farming  is  prac- 
ticed, therefore,  tile  should  be  laid  more  than  three  feet 
deep  in  muck  soils,  if  outlet  conditions  will  permit. 
210.  Gravitational  water  in  irrigated  lands.  — Much 


FIG.  68.  —  Plan  for  moving  surface  water  by  way  of  silt-basin  and  the 
tile  system,  adapted  from  Bulletin  No.  199,  Wisconsin  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 

has  been  said  and  written  of  the  injury  done  to  lands  by 
seepage  waters.  It  has  almost  invariably  been  charged 
that  these  waters,  coming  from  higher  areas,  where  they 
have  been  used  in  excess  to  water  lands,  or  by  seepage 
from  supply  canals,  passing  down  or  out  to  lower  areas, 
become  charged  with  alkali  salts ;  that,  as  they  come  to 
the  surface  of  these  lower  areas,  and  evaporate,  they  leave 
their  burden  of  salts  to  incrust  the  surface  and  later  to 
work  injury  or  death  to  crops  planted  thereon.  In  1890 
Shaler  described  the  destruction  of  the  very  fertile  area 


160  LAND   DRAINAGE 

adjacent  to  the  Jordan  River  in  Utah,  by  seepage  waters 
from  higher  adjacent  irrigated  areas.1  In  a  similar 
manner  it  was  charged  that  the  raisin  grape  industry  in  the 
vicinity  of  Fresno,  California,  was  ruined.2 

Extended  areas  of  vineyard  have  been  discarded  and 
planted  to  grasses,  which  contribute  some  feed  to  dairy 
animals.  Land  values  of  these  orchards  have  fallen  from 
$350  to  $15  an  acre.  The  destruction  of  the  vines  was 
charged  to  the  presence  of  alkalies.  Investigation  has 
shown  that  the  ground  water  now  stands  within  three 
feet  of  the  surface.  A  recent  investigator  says :  "  But 
it  is  clear  that  the  alkalinity  of  the  soil  alone  would 
have  done  little  damage  had  it  not  been  for  the  rise  of 
ground  water  so  near  to  the  surface.  Sixty  thousand 
acres  have  thus  been  affected.  It  has  been  found  that 
this  same  difficulty  occurs  in  irrigated  areas  where  the 
presence  of  alkalies  do  not  exist  in  injurious  amounts. 
It  is  admitted,  however,  that  where  alkali  salts  do 
occur  in  seepage  ground  waters,  they  undoubtedly  do 
injury,  and  especially  from  the  incrustations  resulting 
from  surface  evaporation,  and  that  this  incrustation 
may  be  so  severe  as  to  require  heavy  flowing  of  water 
for  a  few  times  in  irrigating.  It  has  been  found  that 
where  drainage  methods  can  be  established,  and  the 
ground  water  lowered,  even  a  few  feet,  beneficial  effects 
are  quickly  apparent." 

The  installing  of  tile  drains  on  such  lands  will  not  differ 
materially  from  that  in  other  lands.  The  following  facts 
are  offered : 

It   is   not  advisable  to   use  less  than  4-inch  tile  for 

*Part  1,  12th  Annual  Report,  United  States  Geological 
Survey. 

2  Bulletin  217,  Office  Exp.  Station. 


OTHER  CONDITIONS  AND  PROBLEMS         161 

laterals,  and  all  tile  should  range  larger  than  for  similarly 
placed  tile  in  ordinary  systems  in  humid  regions. 

Tile  should  not  be  laid,  generally,  less  than  4.5  feet  deep. 

The  fall  in  any  case  should  not  be  less  than  0.1  foot 
for  8-inch  tile  and  0.2  foot  for  4-inch  tile. 

Long  lines  of  tile  should  be  avoided.  Silt  basins  should 
be  installed  at  frequent  intervals. 

Flooding  is  frequently  necessary  to  remove  accumula- 
tions of  salts,  and  where  hard  pans  exist,  blasting  is  fre- 
quently necessary  to  facilitate  the  leeching. 

The  drainage  waters  of  most  of  these  systems  must  be 
lifted  by  pumps. 

Tile  drains  under  orchards,  vineyards,  and  other 
perennial  vegetation  are  subject  to  clogging  from  roots. 
When  installing  such  a  system,  provision  should  be  made 
for  the  future  cleaning  of  the  drains.  Silt  basins  should 
be  placed  at  reasonable  intervals,  and  in  each  line  be- 
tween basins  there  should  be  placed,  when  laying  the 
tile,  a  small  steel  cable.  When  evidences  of  root  clogging 
appear,  a  steel  brush  of  proper  size  is  hitched  to  (usually) 
the  lower  end  of  the  cable  and  drawn  through  the  line  of 
tile.  A  second  cable  is  first  attached  to  the  brush  to  be 
drawn  through  after  it  to  replace  the  cable  thus  pulled 
out.  A  frame  carrying  a  pulley  set  opposite  the  opening 
of  the  tile  drains  should  be  placed  in  silt  basins  to  carry 
the  cable  and  prevent  its  injuring  the  tile. 

Tile  drains  are  likely  to  clog  if  water-table  is  permitted 
to  remain  too  high. 

211.  Cost  of  tiling.  —  The  cost  of  tile  and  of  hauling  and 
distributing  it  are  matters  that  can  be  fairly  easily  de- 
termined for  any  particular  job.  The  cost  of  tile  laid  down 
at  the  nearest  station  will  depend  upon  its  distance  from 
the  factory.  The  cost  of  hauling  will  depend  on  the  dis- 


162 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


tance  of  the  farm  from  the  station  and  the  condition  or 
quality  of  the  roads. 

The  cost  of  digging  the  ditch,  laying  the  tile,  and  filling 
the  ditch  is  subject  to  considerable  variation  due  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil  and  the  cost  of  labor.  Elliot  estimates 
that  where :  (1)  the  earth  is  readily  spaded  and  no  pick 
or  bar  is  required  in  the  digging,  and  (2)  the  wages  for 
good  diggers  is  25  cents  an  hour  and  for  expert  ditchers 
is  35  cents  an  hour  (the  last  representing  half  the  labor 
required  and  including  superintendence),  the  cost  of 
digging  the  ditch,  laying  the  tile,  and  blinding  will  approxi- 
mate the  figures  shown  in  the  table  below : 


TABLE   XVII 

APPROXIMATE  COST  TO  A  ROD  OF  DIGGING  DITCH,  LAYING  TILE, 
AND  BLINDING  UNDER  CONDITIONS  NAMED  ABOVE 


DEFPH  OF  DITCH 

FOR  4-INCH,  5-INCH, 

OR  6-iNCH  TILE 

FOR  8-iNCH  TILE 

FOR   10-INCH   TlLB 

2    feet 

25    cents 

34    cents 

42  cents 

2%  feet 
3    feet 
3£  feet 

28    cents 
32    cents 
35    cents 

38    cents 
42  £  cents 
48    cents 

47  cents 
53  cents 
60  cents 

4    feet 
4  £  feet 
5    feet 

40    cents 
45  £  cents 
52    cents 

54  1  cents 
62    cents 
70    cents 

68  cents 
77  cents 
87  cents 

When  the  ground  is  so  hard  as  to  require  a  considerable 
use  of  the  pick  or  bar,  the  cost  may  reach  double  that  in- 
dicated in  the  table. 

The  filling  of  a  3-foot  ditch  will  cost  three  cents  a  rod 
when  a  team  and  plow  or  scraper  are  used,  or  six  cents  a 
rod  when  performed  by  hand  labor.  The  cost  of  filling 


OTHER   CONDITIONS  AND  PROBLEMS         163 

other  sizes  will  vary  from  these  figures  according  to  the 
depth  and  width  of  the  ditch,  and  will  be  about  propor- 
tional to  the  cross  section  of  the  ditch. 

A  workman,  reliable  and  expert  in  laying  tile,  and  who 
did  most  of  the  work  "  by  the  rod,"  estimated  that  he 
could  dig  a  3-foot  ditch,  lay  and  blind  the  tile  (3-inch  and 
4-inch),  as  follows : 

In  clay  soil,  requiring  some  "picking"  .     .       6  rods  a  day; 

In  sandy  or  loam  soils 9  rods  a  day ;   and 

In  muck  soils 12  rods  a  day. 

In  Lenawee  County,  Michigan,  a  common  practice 
has  been  to  charge  by  the  foot  for  digging  the  ditch  and 
laying  the  tile.  When  the  drains  average  3  feet  deep, 
the  price  is  1^  cents  a  foot  for  laying  different  sizes  up  to 
and  including  4-inch  tile,  while  the  price  is  2  cents  a  foot 
for  5-  and  6-inch  tile.  Above  6-inch  tile,  wages  are  usually 
paid  by  the  day. 

212.  Order  of  steps  in  tiling.  —  If  the  following  order 
is  observed  in  installing  a  system  of  tile  drains,  numerous 
difficulties  may  be  obviated  : 

1.  Study  the  ground. 

2.  Establish  the  outlet. 

3.  Locate  the  main. 

4.  Determine  the  number  and  locate  the  lines  of  the 
laterals. 

5.  Estimate  the  amount  and  kind  of  tile  required  and 
place  order. 

6.  Place  the  grade  stakes  with  finders,  if  that  has  not 
already  been  done. 

7.  Haul  and  distribute  tile. 

8.  Do  the  leveling,  at  least  for  the  main.     The  leveling 


*#• 

164  LAND   DRAINAGE 

for  the  sub-mains  and  laterals  may  proceed  just  sufficiently 
rapidly  to  keep  in  advance  of  the  digging. 
9.  Make  computations. 

10.  Set  up  grade  bars. 

11.  Do  the  rough  digging,  following  closely  with 

12.  Finishing  the  bottom,  laying  the  tile,  and  blinding. 

13.  Fill. 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE  HOSE-LEVEL 

THE  author  has  recently  used  a  simple 
device  for  drainage  leveling  with  excellent 
success.  This  device  is  shown  in  Fig.  69. 
It  consists  of  a  piece  of  garden  hose, 
with  a  water  gauge  tube  tightly  inserted 
in  each  end,  and  the  ends  held  up. 
Water  is  carefully  introduced  into  the 
hose  halfway  to  the  top  of  the  tubes. 
When  proper  care  is  exercised  to  prevent 
the  presence  of  air  bubbles  in  the  water 
in  the  hose  (and  this  is  easily  accom- 
plished), and  when  the  upper  ends  of  the 
tubes  are  open,  the  two  columns  of  water 
stand  at  the  same  height  (or  level)  no 
matter  how  irregularly  the  hose  may 
lie  upon  the  ground  or  other  surface. 
"Liquids  seek  their  level."  (See  Fig. 
70.) 

213.   Accuracy  of  reading.  —  Far  greater 
accuracy  in  reading  can 
be    obtained    with    this_ 
device  than  with  any  of 
the     so-called     cheaper 
levels;  and  so  far  as  he 
has  used  it,  the  author  FIG.  69.  —  Hose-level. 

165 


166 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


has  been  able  to  check  as  closely  with  it  as  with  the 
higher-priced  instruments.  It  is  sometimes  used  by 
architects  and  builders  for  checking 
up  the  level  of  foundations  for  large 
buildings,  and  in  leveling  shafting 
where  an  intercepting  wall  prevents 
the  use  of  the  ordinary  level.  As 
a  drainage  level,  its  chief  limitation 
is  that  the  distance  over  which  a 
single  reading  may  be  taken  is 
relatively  short. 

214.  Availability    and    cost.  - 
Garden  hose  is  readily  obtained  in 
most  towns  and  villages.     Indeed 
it  is  used  on  many  farms,  so  that 
frequently  it  is  already  owned  or  is 
easily  obtained  by  the  party  desir- 
ing to  use  it  to  construct  a  level. 
Water  gauge  tubes,  twelve  inches 
long,    are    not    difficult  to  obtain 
through  the  local  hardware   man, 
who  is  likely  to  have  them  in  stock. 

215.  Materials     needed.  —  To 
construct  a  hose-level  one  should 
have  the  following  material : 

Sixty  feet  of  garden  hose ; 
Two  12-inch  glass  water  gauge 
tubes ; 

A  few  feet  of  strong  copper  wire 
or  flexible  steel  wire  to  close  tightly 
the  ends  of  the  hose  about  the  gauge 
tubes,  and  form  a  hook  at  each  end  of  the  hose  by  which  the 
end  may  be  suspended  when  not  in  use,  or  for  other  reasons ; 


FIG.  70.  —  Ends  of  hose- 
level,  showing  the  way 
in  which  the  height  of 
column  should  be  read. 
The  meniscus  in  each 
case,  that  is,  the  upper 
end  of  the  water  in  the 
tube,  is  U-shaped.  The 
reading  should  always 
be  made  to  the  bottom 
of  this  U  or  meniscus. 


THE   HOSE-LEVEL  167 

A  good  pair  of  combination  nipper  pliers  for  handling 
and  cutting  the  wire,  and  so  on ; 

A  few  gallons  of  clear  water  free  from  oil,  sediment, 
and  the  like. 

216.  Suggestions.  —  Half-inch  hose  is  preferable  to  a 
larger  size. 

Sixty  feet  of  hose  is  sufficient  where  the  grade  stakes  are 
not  over  50  feet  apart. 

The  gauge  tubes  should  have  an  outside  diameter  suffi- 
ciently large  to  cause  them  to  fit  fairly  snugly  in  the  ends 
of  the  hose. 

The  gauge  tubes  should  have  the  same  inside  diameter. 
If  they  differ  materially,  the  water  wrill  rise  higher  in  the 
tube  having  the  smaller  inside  diameter. 

There  are  to  be  procured  on  the  market,  at  reasonable 
prices,  coupling-clamps,  which  are  simple  and  easier  to 
use  than  wire  in  closing  the  ends  of  the  hose  about  the 
tubes. 

217.  Constructing  the  hose-level.  —  A  tube  should  be 
inserted  in  one  end  of  the  hose  and  firmly  clamped.     If 
wire  is  used  to  clamp  in  the  tube,  the  piece  should  be  cut 
long  enough  so  that  after  the  clamping  is  accomplished, 
the  end  of  the  wire  may  be  bent  into  a  hook,  by  which  to 
hang  up  the  end  of  the  level.     If  a  coupling  clamp  is  used 
to  close  the  hose  about  the  tube,  the  wire  hook  should  be 
provided  also. 

It  is  best  not  to  insert  the  tube  at  the  other  end  till 
after  the  hose  has  been  filled  with  water ;  but  wire  and  tube 
(or  clamp  and  tube  and  wire)  should  be  made  ready  to 
complete  the  end,  as  in  the  former  case,  as  soon  as  the  hose 
is  filled  with  water. 

218.  Introducing  the  water.  —  Before  starting  to  fill, 
it  is  desirable  that  the  hose  be  stretched  straight  upon 


168  LAND   DRAINAGE 

an  even  surface  —  ground  or  floor  —  preferably  upon 
a  slope  or  incline,  and  parallel  to  the  slope.  The  upper 
end,  with  tube  inserted  and  clamped  in  place,  should 
be  suspended,  or  held,  tube  up,  about  three  feet  above 
the  floor. 

The  water  should  be  introduced  at  the  lower  end  (first 
removing  the  tube  if  it  has  been  inserted).  At  first  the 
end  should  be  held  low  while  the  water  is  being  introduced. 
The  water  should  be  poured  in  slowly,  with  a  care  not  to 
introduce  air  with  it.  As  the  filling  proceeds  and  the  water 
fills  the  hose,  the  end  should  be  raised  until  the  hose  is 
filled  to  the  upper  tube.  The  tube  should  now  be  inserted 
at  the  filling  end  and  clamped  in  place,  and  enough  more 
water  added  to  bring  the  water  to  about  the  middle  of 
both  tubes,  which  means,  of  course,  that  the  tubes  must 
be  brought  to  the  same  level. 

The  hose  could  be  better  and  more  quickly  filled  if  an 
end  could  be  tightly  fastened  over  the  end  of  a  water  tap, 
having  water  free  from  air,  and  with  some  pressure.  In 
this  case  the  water  should  be  allowed  to  flow  through  the 
hose  for  a  few  minutes  after  it  is  full. 

A  funnel  properly  used  would  help  where  the  hose  is 
filled  by  hand,  from  a  receptacle. 

219.   Removing    air  bubbles   from  the  hose-level.  - 
However  filled,  there  is  a  possibility  of  the  presence  of 
bubbles  of  air  at  various  points  in  the  hose,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  removing  them  a  scheme  something  like  the 
following  should  be  employed : 

Lower  one  end  of  the  hose  till  the  water  begins  to 
overflow  the  tube.  Place  the  thumb  firmly  over  the  end 
of  the  tube  and  lower  to  the  ground.  Having  first  sus- 
pended the  other  end  of  the  hose  at  a  height  of  5  or 
6  feet,  have  a  second  party  place  his  hand  under  the  hose 


THE   HOSE-LEVEL  169 

6  feet  from  the  end  held  to  the  ground,  lift  the  hose  to 
the  height  of  5  feet  above  the  ground,  hold  it  in  that  posi- 
tion for  fifteen  seconds,  and  then,  holding  the  hand  shoulder 
high,  move  it  very  slowly  under  the  hose  to  the  farther 
end.  Any  bubbles  of  air  which  may  have  been  held  by 
the  water  in  the  hose  should  follow  the  upper  bend  in 
the  hose  produced  by  the  hand  passing  under  it,  and  should 
be  liberated  through  the  tube  at  the  farther  end.  The 
end  near  the  ground  may  be  lifted  any  time  after  enough 
hose  has  passed  so  that  some  portion  shall  touch  the  ground 
between  the  end  and  the  hand  moving  the  air  bubbles. 
It  is  well  to  keep  the  thumb  held  tightly  over  the  end  of 
the  tube  until  the  hand  reaches  the  farther  end.  Exercise 
care  not  to  remove  the  thumb  until  the  tubes  are  brought 
to  the  same  height.  Water  will  probably  have  to  be  added 
now  to  bring  up  the  water  in  the  tubes.  If  added  slowly, 
no  air  need  be  introduced  below  the  tubes. 

220.  Checking  up  the  instrument.  —  After  introducing 
the  water  and  removing  any  air  present,  the  two  ends  of 
the  apparatus  should  be  brought  together,  side  by  side, 
against  some  vertical  surface  upon  which  is  drawn  a 
horizontal  line  or  which  may  have  a  horizontal  upper  edge, 
approximately  shoulder  high.  Raise  or  lower  one  of  the 
ends  until  the  top  of  the  water  column  stands  even  with 
the  line  or  edge.  The  column  at  the  other  end  should  also 
stand  even  with  the  line  or  straight  edge.  Repeat  the 
test  after  disturbing  the  main  portion  of  the  hose  by 
lifting  it  at  different  points  or  partly  or  wholly  stretch- 
ing out  a  part  or  all  of  it.  If  the  columns  stand  at  the 
same  height  in  each  of  three  trials,  it  may  be  put  into 
use  at  once. 

If  in  any  trial  the  columns  fail  to  stand  at  the  same 
height,  this  indicates  the  presence  of  air  in  the  hose ;  the 


170  LAND   DRAINAGE 


hose  should  be  then  manipulated  as  sug- 
gested above  until  the  air  is  removed,  as 
indicated  by  the  heights  of  the  columns 
in  checking./ 

221.  Leveling   rods.  —  In   determining 
elevations  with  the  hose-level,  two  rods 
are    needed,    one    approximately    4    feet 
long  and  the  other  3  feet  longer,  and  both 
of  1-inch  X  Ij-inch  material.     (See  Figs. 
71  and  72.) 

Observe  (1)  that  only  the  long  rod 
bears  a  scale;  (2)  that  both  rods  have  a 
zero  mark  at  the  height  of  3j  feet  (42 
inches) ;  and  (3)  that  the  long  rod  has  a 
double  scale  —  one  numbering  down  from 
the  zero  mark  and  one  numbering  up 
from  the  zero  mark.1 

222.  Construction  of  rods.  —  At  pres- 
ent, these  rods  cannot  be  bought  on  the 
market    and    must,    therefore,    be    home 
made.     For    scales,    it    is    convenient  to 
use  yardsticks,  and  in  the  first  attempts 
made   in  using  this  method   of  leveling, 
the  cheap  yardstick,  so  common  for  ad- 
vertising  purposes,    was    used.     In    con- 
structing these  rods,  the  following  simple 
directions  should  be  observed : 

1.  Have  the  rods  straight  and  their 
lower  ends  square ; 

1  The  zero  mark  may  be  located  at  any 
height,  but  must  be  at  the  same  height  on  both 
rods. 

FIG.  71.  —  Leveling  rods  used  with  the  hose-level. 
The  short  rod  bears  the  zero  mark  only. 


THE   HOSE-LEVEL 


171 


-H 


2.  Be  careful  to  have  the 
zero  at  the  same  height  on 
both  rods  (see  Fig.  72) ; 

3.  Have  the  two   scales 
on  the  long  rod  meet  at  the 
zero  mark,  and  the  edge  of 
one  scale  in  line  with  the 
similar  edge  of  the  other. 

223.  System  of  reading. 
-  It  is  not  easy  to  buy 
rules  or  scales  graduated  to 
tenths  and  hundredths  of 
feet,  and  while  these  can 
be  procured,  they  are  ex- 
pensive. Most  persons  pre- 
fer to  use  scales  graduated 
to  inches,  quarters,  eighths, 
and  sixteenths.  Indeed, 
some  of  the  standard  level- 
ing rods  are  so  graduated. 
The  decimal  graduations 
are  easiest  handled  after 
one  becomes  acquainted 
with  them.  For  the  con- 
venience of  persons  desiring 
to  use  the  hose-level  with 
decimal  reading,  Table 
XVII  has  been  prepared. 
By  reference  to  the  table, 
any  reading  in  inches, 
eighths,  and  sixteenths  can 

FIG.  72.  —  Detailed  drawing  of 
Fig.  71. 


172 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


TABLE   XVIII 

READINGS  IN  INCHES,  EIGHTHS,  AND  SIXTEENTHS  TRANSPOSED 
TO  DECIMALS  OF  A  FOOT  (HOSE-LEVEL) 


INCHES- 
EIGHTHS 

DECIMAL 
OF  FOOT 

INCHES 
EIGHTHS 

DECIMAL, 
OF  FOOT 

INCHES 
EIGHTHS 

DECIMAL 
OF  FOOT 

INCHES 
EIGHTHS 

DECIMAL 
OF  FOOT 

1 

0-1 

.0052 
.0104 

M 

3-1 

.2552 
.2604 

M 

6-1 

.5052 
.5104 

9-1 
9-1 

.7552 
.7604 

1 

2 

.0156 
.0208 

i 

2 

.2656 
.2708 

2 

.5156 
.5208 

2 

.7656 

.7708 

i 

3 

.0260 
.0312 

3 

.2760 
.2812 

3 

.5260 
.5312 

3 

.7760 

.7812 

i 

4 

.0364 
.0417 

4 

.2864 
.2917 

4 

.5364 
.5417 

4 

.  7864 
.7917 

i 

5 

.0469 
.0521 

5 

.2969 
.3021 

5 

.5469 
.5521 

5 

.7969 
.8021 

I 
6 

.0573 
.0625 

6 

.3073 
.3125 

6 

.5573 
.5625 

6 

.8073 
.8125 

i 

7 

.0677 
.0729 

7 

.3177 
.3230 

7 

.5677 
.5729 

7 

.8177 
.8230 

i 

1-0 

.0781 
.0833 

4-0 

.3282 
.3333 

7-0 

.5781 
.5833 

10-0 

.8282 
.8333 

1 

1-1 

.0885 
.0937 

4-1 

.3385 
.3437 

7-1 

.5885 
.5937 

10-1 

.8385 
.8437 

i 

2 

.0989 
.1041 

2 

.3489 
.3542 

2 

.5989 
.6041 

2 

.8489 
.8542 

i 

3 

.1093 
.1146 

3 

.3594 
.3646 

3 

.6093 
.6146 

3 

.8594 
.8646 

i 

4 

.1198 
.1250 

4 

.3698 
.3750 

4 

.6198 
.6250 

4 

.8698 
.8750 

i 

5 

.1302 
.1354 

5 

.3802 
.3854 

5 

.6302 
.6354 

5 

.8802 
.8854 

i 

6 

.1406 
.1458 

6 

.3906 
.3958 

6 

.6406 
.6458 

6 

.8906 

.8958 

i 

7 

.1510 
.1562 

7 

.4010 
.4062 

7 

.6510 
.6562 

7 

.9010 
.9062 

THE   HOSE-LEVEL 


173 


READINGS  IN  INCHES,  EIGHTHS,  AND  SIXTEENTHS  TRANSPOSED 
TO  DECIMALS  OF  A  FOOT  (HOSE-LEVEL)  —  Continued 


INCHES 
EIGHTHS 

DECIMAL 
OF  FOOT 

INCHES 
EIGHTHS 

DECIMAL 
OF  FOOT 

INCHES 
EIGHTHS 

DECIMAL 
OF  FOOT 

INCHES 
EIGHTHS 

DECIMAL 
OF  FOOT 

i 

2-0 

.1614 
.1666 

5-0 

.4114 
.4166 

8-0 

.6614 
.6666 

ll-O 

.9114 
.9166 

1 
2-1 

.1718 
.1771 

5-1 

.4218 
.4270 

8-1 

.6718 
.6771 

11-1 

.9218 
.9270 

\ 
2 

.1823 
.1875 

2 

.4322 
.4375 

2 

.6823 

.6875 

2 

.9322 
.9375 

i 

3 

.1927 
.1979 

3 

.4427 
.4479 

3 

.6927 
.6979 

3 

.9427 
.9479 

i 

4 

.2031 
.2083 

4 

.4531 
.4583 

4 

.7031 
.7083 

4 

.9531 
.9583 

} 

5 

.2135 

.2187 

5 

.4635 
.4687 

5 

.7135 

.7187 

5 

.9635 

.9687 

\ 
6 

.2239 
.2292 

6 

.4739 
.4792 

6 

.7239 
.7292 

6 

.9739 
.9792 

I 

7 

.2344 
.2396 

7 

.4844 
.4896 

7 

.7344 
.7396 

7 

.9844 
.9896 

1 
3-0 

.2448 
.2500 

6-0 

.4948 
.5000 

9-0 

.7448 
.7500 

12-0 

.9948 
1.0000 

be  readily  transformed  to  tenths  and  hundredths  of 
feet. 

224.  To  use  the  apparatus.  —  The  way  in  which  the 
hose-level  is  used  is  illustrated  in  Figs.  73  and  74.  It  is  de- 
sirable to  start  the  leveling  from  a  stake  whose  elevation 
is  known  or  assumed,  as  is  the  custom  with  the  ordinary 
drainage  level.  The  leveling  proceeds  as  follows : 

(a)  The  attendant,  whom  we  will  call  the  short-rod  man, 
moves  with  the  short  rod  and  one  end  of  the  hose-level  to 
stake  2.  (In  moving,  he  should  be  careful  to  hold  a  thumb 
firmly  over  the  end  of  the  tube.)  He  places  the  short 


174 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


rod  upon  grade  stake  2  and  carefully  holding  it  in  a  per- 
pendicular position,  brings  the  tube  against  the  side  of 
the  rod,  and  raises  or  lowers  the  tube  until  the  top  of 
the  water  column  comes  to  rest  even  with,  or  at  the  zero 
mark. 

(6)  At  the  same  time  the  other  party,  whom  we  will 
call  the  long-rod  man,  places  the  long  rod  upon  grade 


FIG.  73.  —  Hose-level  in  use. 

stake  1,  holds  it  carefully  in  a  perpendicular  position,  and 
brings  the  tube  of  his  end  of  the  level  against  the  scale  side 
of  the  rod  and,  if  necessary,  raises  or  lowers  the  tube  to 
permit  the  short-rod  man  to  bring  the  column  at  his  end 
to  the  zero.  (See  and  study  Fig.  70.)  The  short-rod 
end  should  be  held  so  that  the  bottom  of  the  curve 
(meniscus)  of  end  of  the  water  column  stands  even  with 
the  zero  line. 

225.  How  to  read  height  of  column.  —  When  the  short- 
rod  man  indicates  that  the  water  column  at  his  end  is  at 
zero,  the  long-rod  man  should  read  the  height  of  the  water 
column,  as  indicated  by  the  bottom  of  the  curve  (menis- 
cus). This  reading  is  used  to  determine  the  height  of 
stake  2. 


THE   HOSE-LEVEL  175 

226.  The  reading.  —  When  the  top  of  the  water  column 
stands  at  zero  on  the  short  rod : 

(a)  If  the  top  of  the  water  column  stands  at  zero  on 
the  long  rod,  the  stakes  stand  at  the  same  height  above 
datum,  and  the  reading  is  zero. 


FIG.  74.  —  Nearer  view  of  the  hose-level  in  use. 

(b)  If  the  top  of  the  water  column  stands  above  zero, 
on  the  long  rod,  it  is  because  stake  2  stands  higher  above 
datum  than  stake  1,  and  the  reading  is  a  positive  reading. 

(c)  If  the  top  of  the  water  column  stands  below  zero 
on  the  long  rod,  it  is  because  stake  2  does  not  stand  so 
high  above  datum  as  stake  1   (is  lower  than   stake    1) 
and  the  reading  is  a  negative  one. 

227.  Moving.  —  After  the  reading  has  been  made  and 
properly  recorded,  the  short-rod  man,  grasping  his  end 
of  the  level,  moves  to  stake  3  and  places  the  short  rod 


176 


LAND  DRAINAGE 


on  grade  stake  3,  while  the  long-rod  man  moves  to  stake  2 
and  places  the  long  rod  upon  stake  2.  A  reading  is  ob- 
tained in  the  same  manner  as  before  and  properly  recorded. 
This  reading  is  used  to  determine  the  height  of  stake  3. 

228.  Recording  data.  —  The  table  used  for  recording 
these  readings  will  be  somewhat  different  in  form  from 
Table  XII.  Table  XIX  illustrates  the  form  to  be  used. 
In  columns  3  and  4,  of  Table  XIX,  will  be  found  the 
readings  as  they  would  have  been  obtained  if  the  hose- 
level  had  been  used  in  leveling  for  the  drain  shown  in 
Fig.  47,  and  if  a  rod  with  decimal  scale  had  been  used. 
In  all  other  respects  Table  XIX  is  like  Tables  XIII  and 
XVI. 

TABLE   XIX 


STAKE 

DIS- 
TANCE 

LEVEL 
READINGS 

ELEVA- 
TION 

FALL 

ELEVA- 
TION OP 
BOTTOM 
OF  DITCH 

DEPTH 
OP  DITCH 

HEIGHT 
OF  GRADE 
BAR    , 

(+) 
Above 

B&w 

1 

0 

10.00 

2 

50 

.50 

3 

100 

.17 

4 

150 

1.92 

5 

200 

.70 

•..; 

6 

250 

.45 

7 

300 

1.26 

8 

350 

.61 

9 

400 

2.45 

10 

450 

1.10 

11 

500 

1.20 

229.  Positive  readings.  —  A  positive  reading  indicates 
that  the  stake  for  which  it  was  taken  (the  stake  upon 
which  the  short  rod  rested)  is  higher  than  the  stake  from 
which  it  was  taken  (the  stake  upon  which  the  long  rod 
rested),  or  that  the  stake  upon  which  the  short  rod  stood 


THE   HOSE-LEVEL  111 

for  the  reading  is  higher  than  the  one  on  which  the  long 
rod  stood.  It  should  be  introduced  into  the  column  in 
the  table  for  positive  readings,  and  after  the  number  of 
the  stake  for  which  it  was  taken. 

230.  Negative  readings.  —  A  negative  reading  indicates 
that  the  stake  for  which  it  was  taken  is  lower  than  the  stake 
from  which  it  was  taken.     It  should  be  introduced  into 
the  column  for  negative  readings  in  the  table  and  after 
the  number  of  the  stake  for  which  it  was  taken,  —  the 
stake  upon  which  the  short  rod  stood. 

231.  Computing   elevations.  —  Computing   the   eleva- 
tions of  the  several  grade  stakes  becomes  a  very  simple 
matter  with  the   readings   obtained   by  the  hose-level. 
The  reading  for  any  stake  indicates  how  much  higher  or 
lower  it  is  than  the  stake  from  which  the  reading  was  taken. 
There  is  no  height  of  instrument  to  determine  or  to  work 
from. 

In  Table  XIX  the  level  reading  for  stake  2  is  positive 
.50  foot.  This  reading  was  taken  from  stake  1,  and  the 
fact  that  it  is  a  positive  reading  indicates  that  stake  2  is 
.50  foot  higher  than  stake  1.  Adding  this  reading  to  the 
elevation  of  stake  1  gives  10.50  feet  as  the  elevation  of 
stake  2.  The  reading  for  stake  3  is  negative  .17  foot, 
and  the  fact  that  it  is  a  negative  reading  indicates  that 
stake  3  is  .17  foot  lower  than  stake  2,  from  which  the 
reading  for  stake  3  was  taken.  Substracting  this  reading, 
.17  foot,  from  the  elevation  of  stake  2  gives  10.33  feet. 

232.  The  rule  is  apparent.  —  To  determine  the  eleva- 
tion of  a  stake,  add  its  reading,  if  positive,  to  or  subtract 
its  reading,  if  negative,  from  the  elevation  of  the  stake 
from  which  its  reading  was  taken. 

When  the  elevations  have  been  correctly  computed 
from  the  readings  in  Table  XIX,  they  are  found  to  corre- 


178  LAND   DRAINAGE 

spond  with  the  elevations  as  determined  from  the  readings 
for  the  same  drain  in  Table  XV. 

233.  Recording  reading  taken,  in  feet  and  inches.  - 
When  scales  graduated  to  feet,  inches,  quarters,  eighths, 
and  sixteenths  are  used,  the  writer  has  found  it  most 
satisfactory  to  read  and  record  all  fractions  of  the  inches 
in  terms  of  eighths  only.     For  example : 

-^Q  inch  =    J  eighth  inch. 

-J-  inch  =  2    eighths  inch. 

f  inch  =  4  eighths  inch. 
YQ  inch  =  3J  eighths  inch, 
-j-f  inch  =  6|  eighths  inch. 

Three  feet  7y^  inches  are  recorded  in  the  table  as 
3-7-6J. 

In  practice,  one  quickly  becomes  used  to  this  plan  of 
expressing  values  and  recording  them,  and  finds  little 
difficulty  in  using  them  in  making  his  computations. 

Table  XX  is  a  reproduction  of  level  readings  as  ]they 
appear  in  notes  for  two  drains  300  feet  and  250  feet  in 
length,  respectively.  Note  in  columns  3  and  4  the  rela- 
tive positions  in  the  column  of  (1)  the  figures  expressing 
feet,  (2)  those  expressing  inches,  and  (3)  those  express- 
ing the  fractions  of  an  inch  (always  expressed  in  eighths 
of  an  inch). 

234.  Relation  of  values.  —  An  eighth  of  an  inch  is  a 
trifle  more  than  one  one-hundredth  of  a  foot  (.0104).     A 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  is  a  little  more  than  five  thousandths 
of  a  foot   (.0052).      When  one  works  as  close  as  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch,  in  ordinary  drain  work,  one  is  doing 
well,  and  this  is  closer  than  can  be  done  with  the  ordinary 
cheap  drainage  level.     One  can,  with  care,  work  to  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  with  the  hose-level. 


THE   HOSE-LEVEL 


179 


TABLE    XX 


LATERAL  FROM  STAKE  4  OF  MAIN 


| 

DISTANCE 

READINGS 

ELEVATION 
OF  STAKES 

GRADE 

ELEVATION 
OF  BOTTOM 
OF  DITCH 

J 

H  tf 
M  •< 

(+)  Above 
Ft.  in.  f  s 

(-)  Below 
Ft.  in.  fa 

1 

0 

12-5-1 

2 

50 

-1-2J 

3 

100 

-2-0 

4 

150 

3-6^ 

5 

200 

1-0 

6 

250 

7-0 

7 

200 

-3-6i 

LATERAL  FROM  STAKE  5  OF  MAIN 


1 

0 

12-9-J 

2 

50 

-4- 

3 

100 

-  H-3£ 

4 

150 

i-o-U 

5 

200 

l-l-6i 

6 

250 

-9-7J 

CHAPTER   X 

USING  THE  HOSE-LEVEL  WITHOUT  LEVELING 

RODS 

FOK  drains  of  moderate  length,  when  the  surface  of  the 
land  is  fairly  regular,  and  when  the  fall  does  not  exceed 
three  feet  for  the  whole  line,  a  very  simple  procedure  may 
be  followed.  Figure  75  represents  the  profile  of  a  piece  of 
field  in  which  a  400-foot  lateral  is  to  be  laid.  The  lateral 
must  be  40  inches  (3  feet  4  inches)  deep  at  the  main.  The 
grade  stakes  are  in  place  (50  feet  apart)  as  shown  in  the 
figure.  Stake  1  was  a  grade  stake  of  the  main  and  the 
depth  of  the  main  at  that  stake  has  determined  the  depth 
of  the  lateral  at  that  point. 

235.  Long  stakes.  —  Two  inches  back  from  each  grade 
stake,  there  must  be  driven  firmly  into  the  ground  one  of 
the  stakes  that  will  later  be  needed  to  carry  the  grade  bar 
(or   "  batter  board  "   as  it  is  sometimes  called).     This 
stake  should  be  1 X  4  inches,  and  after  driving,  should 
stand  out  of  the  ground  3  to  5  or  more  feet,  depending 
upon  its  location  in  the  line  and  the  fall  of  the  land  and 
of  the  drain.     Each  stake  must  be  as  high  as  the  level 
of  the  grade  bar  at  the  head  of  the  drain  will  stand.     When 
in  place,  it  should  be  perpendicular  and  its  face  should 
stand  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  drain.     These 
stakes  are  shown  in  Fig.  76. 

236.  To  establish  datum  plane. —The  depth  of  the 
drain  at  its  upper  end  should  now  be  determined.     That 

180 


THE   HOSE-LEVEL  181 

depth  subtracted  from  5  feet  6  inches1 
gives  the  height  of  the  top  of  the  grade 
bar  above  the  grade  stake.  Let  us  sup- 
pose that  in  this  case  the  depth  of  the 
drain  is  to  be  3  feet;  3  feet  subtracted 
from  5  feet  6  inches  gives  2  feet  6  inches 
as  the  height  of  the  bar  above  grade 
stake.  On  the  inner  edge  of  the  long 
stake,  by  pencil,  chisel,  or  some  other  1  £ 
mark,  the  height  of  the  grade  bar  is  in-  Kt^  ij  § 
dicated  (2  feet  6  inches  in  this  case).  1  §  x  ^ 

237.   Leveling.  —  With  the  hose-level,        I     3  Jf    1 
the    leveling    begins    at    the    end    stake 
(stake  9  in  this  case).     In  this  case  the 
leveling  proceeds  down  instead  of  up  the 
drain.     The    hose-level   is   stretched    be- 

K  t£$ 

tween  stakes  9  and  8  and  the  tubes  of    Jj^  «g 

the  level  are  placed  one  against  the  tall 

stake   9   and    one   against   tall   stake    8. 

The  tube  at  9  is  brought  into  position 

so    that   the   top    of    its    water    column 

stands  even  with  the  mark  on  the  edge         1  o 

of  the  stake  indicating  the  proper  height 

of  the  grade  bar.     The  man  at  stake  8 

now  carefully  marks  on  the  edge  of  stake 

8  the  height  of  water  column  in  the  tube 

at  his  end  of  the  level.      The   level   is 

now  placed  between  stakes  8  and  7,  and 

the  tubes  brought  against  the  edges  of 

the  stakes ;  the  tube  against  the  edge  of 

8  is  brought  into  position  so  that  the  top 

1  In  the  computations  for  this  drain,  feet, 
inches,  and  fraction  of  the  inch  will  be  used. 


182 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


ff-e-o, 


of  its  water  column 
stands  even  with  the 
mark  just  placed  upon 
it.  Then  the  man  at 
stake  7  carefully  marks 
on  the  inner  edge  of 
stake  7  the  height  of 
the  top  of  the  water 
column.  In  like  man- 
ner the  height  of  the 
mark  on  stake  7  is  in- 
dicated on  stake  6,  and 
that  on  stake  6  is  in- 
dicated on  stake  5,  and 
so  on  till  a  similar  mark 
is  placed  upon  stake  1. 
It  is  not  necessary  to 
explain  that  all  of  the 
marks  so  placed  on  the 
inner  edges  of  the  stakes 
are  in  the  same  hori- 
zontal plane  and  on 
the  same  level.  This 
plane  is  a  datum  plane 
and  from  it  we  make 
our  actual  computa- 
tions. 

238.  The  height  of 
grade  bars. — The 
height  at  which  the 
grade  bar  should  stand 
at  stake  1  is  now  de- 
termined and  marked 


THE   HOSE-LEVEL  183 

on  the  inner  edge  of  stake  1.  In  this  case  the  depth  of 
the  ditch  at  stake  1  is  to  be  40  inches  as  previously  stated. 
Forty  inches  equals  3  feet  4  inches,  and  this  subtracted 
from  5  feet  6  inches  gives  us  2  feet  2  inches,  and  this 
height  above  grade  stake  is  now  marked  on  the  inner 
edge  of  the  long  stake  at  1,  as  it  was  on  stake  9. 

239.  To  determine  fall  by  hose-level.  —  Referring  now 
to  Fig.  76,  if  we  draw  a  straight  line  connecting  points 
Lg  and  LI,  this  line  passes  through  all  the  other  level 
marks  on  the  several  other  stakes.     It  is  level.     If  we 
connect  the  point  Z9,  which  is  also  the  height  of  the  grade 
bar  on  stake  9,  with  the  point  B\,  which  is  the  height  of 
the  grade  bar  on  stake  1,  with  a  straight  line,  that  line 
represents  the  fall  of  the  drain  from  stake  9  to  stake  1. 
(It  shows  the  location  of  the  boning  line.) 

240.  Computations.  —  The    distance    from    the    point 
LI  to  the  point  BI  represents  the  actual  fall  or  drop  of 
the  drain  between  stake  9  and  stake  1.     This  measuring 
may  be  done  with  an   ordinary  rule   or  yardstick.     In 
this  case  the  distance  from  Ll  to  BI  is  found  to  be  2  feet 
If  inches,  or  2-1-4.     This  is  the  total  fall  whether  it 
is  regular  or  broken. 

The  length  of  drain  is  400  feet,  divided  by  the  grade 
stakes  into  eight  50-foot  intervals  or  sections.  If  the 
fall  is  constant  and  the  total  fall  from  stake  9  to  stake  1 
is  2  feet  1-f-  inches,  the  fall  from  stake  9  to  stake  8 — indeed 
the  fall  from  any  stake  to  the  stake  next  below  it  —  is  one 
eighth  of  2  feet  1-f-  inches.  Dividing,  we  find  that  fall  to 
be  3  inches  and  1^  eighths  (2-1-4)  -r-8  =  (0-3-1-J).  At 
stake  8,  then,  the  grade  bar  will  stand  3  inches  and  1-^ 
eighths  below  the  level  mark.  At  stake  7  the  grade  bar 
will  stand  twice  3  inches  and  1^  eighths  below  the  level 
mark ;  at  stake  6  the  grade  bar  will  stand  three  times  3 


184 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


inches  and  1-^  eighths  below  the  level  mark,  and  so  on 
down  to  stake  1. 

TABLE   XXI 


STAKE 

DISTANCE 

FALL  FOR 
50  FT. 

DISTANCE  OP 
GRADE  BAR 

BELOW 

LEVEL, 

HEIGHT  OF 
GRADE  BAR 
(ABOVE 
GRADE 
STAKE) 

DEPTH  OF 
DITCH 

1 

0 

0-3-H 

2-1-4 

2-2-0 

3-4-0 

2 

50 

1-10-2^ 

1-8-0 

3-10-0 

3 

100 

1-7-1 

1-4-4 

4-1-4 

4 

150 

l-3-7| 

1-4-4 

4-1-4 

5 

200 

1-0-6 

-10-4 

4-7-4 

6 

250 

0-9-4^ 

1-7-5 

3-10-3 

7 

300 

0-6-3 

l-6-£ 

3-11-7^ 

8 

350 

0-3-1  \ 

1-10-4 

3-7-4 

9 

400 

0-0-0 

2-6-0 

3-0-0 

241.  Placing  the  marks  for  grade  bars.  —  A  permanent 
mark  (with  pencil,  chisel,  or  knife)  should  be  made  on  the 
inner  edge  of  each  stake  to  indicate  the  proper  height  of 
grade  bar.     And  this  height  is  obtained  for  any  stake  by 
carefully  measuring  down  from  the  datum  plane  on  that 
stake,  with  a  rule  or  yardstick,  the  distance   indicated 
for  that  stake  in  column  4  of  the  table. 

242.  Checking  up  on  depth  of  ditch.  —  Before  putting 
up  the  grade  bars,  it  will  be  well  to  check  up  on  the  depths 
of  the  ditch  at  a  few  points  along  the  line,  and,  if  the  ground 
is  rather  irregular,  at  all  points.     It  may  be  that  a  con- 
stant grade,  or  fall,  from  stake  9  to  stake  1  may  call  for 
too  great  a  depth  of  ditch  at  some  point,  or  too  shallow 
a  depth  at  some  other.     The  bottom  of  the  finished  ditch 
stands  5  feet  6  inches   below  the  boning  line.     With  a 
rule  or  yardstick,  determine  the  distance  at  stake  2  from 


THE   HOSE-LEVEL  185 

the  grade  bar  mark  to  the  grade  stake,  and  record  in  column 
5  of  your  notes.  Then  pass  to  stake  3  and  determine 
distance  from  grade  bar  mark  to  grade  stake,  and  so  on 
to  stake  8.  In  the  case  in  hand,  these  measurements, 
if  correctly  made,  would  appear  in  the  notes  as  in  column 
5  of  Table  XXI. 

243.  Breaking  the  grade. — The  depth  of  ditch  at  any 
point  is  found  by  subtracting  the  height  of  the  grade  bar 
from  5  feet  6  inches.     The  depths  as  shown  in  column  5  of 
Table  XXI  range  as  great  as  4  feet  1|  inches.     This  is 
not  objectionable  except  for  the  extra  expense  in  digging. 
Raising  the  grade  bar  4  inches  at  stake  5  would  mean  a 
break  at  that  point  in  the  grade  or  fall  of  the  drain,  but 
would  still  leave  a  good  fall  for  the  upper  half  of  the  drain. 
Such  a  change  would  require  another  set  of  computations. 
But  such  computations  are  simple.1     It  would  require  also 
that  a  new  set  of  marks  be  established  for  the  grade  bars. 

244.  Placing  the  grade  bars.  —  With  the  grade  or  fall 
definitely  established,  the   computations  completed   and 
the  proper  heights  for  the  grade  bars  marked  on  the  inner 
edges  of  the  stakes,  the  grade  bars  should  be  placed.     At 
each  stake,  and  three  to  four  feet  from  it,  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  proposed  ditch,  should  be  driven  a  second 
stake  of  proper  height.     The  grade  bar,   in  each  case 
straight  edge  up  with  a  spirit  level  resting  upon  it,  should 
be  brought  into  position  against  the  front  side  of  the 
stakes  so  that,  when  level,  the  upper  edge  rests  even  with 
the  mark  previously  put  upon  the  inner  edge  of  the  first 

1  If  the  mark  B5  at  5  were  raised  4  inches,  the  distance  from 
Z/s  to  B5  would  then  be  (0-8-6)  and  this  would  represent  the 
fall  from  B9  to  B$.  The  fall  from  B5  to  BI  would  be  (2-1-4) 
less  (0-8-6)  =  (1-4-6).  (0-8-6)  4-  4  =  (0-2-l|),  the  fall  per 
50  feet  between  stake  9  and  stake  5,  while  (1-4-6)  -5-  4  = 
(0-4-1^),  the  fall  per  50  feet  between  stake  5  and  stake  1. 


186  LAND   DRAINAGE 

long  stake  to  mark  the  proper  height  of  bar  at  that  stake. 
In  this  position  the  bar  should  be  nailed  to  the  two  stakes. 

245.  Checking  the  bars.  —  After  the  bars  are  in  place, 
one  should  sight  over  them  to  see  that  their  tops  are  in 
line.     The  drainage  work  proceeds  from  this  point  in  the 
ordinary  way,  except  that  in  opening  the  ditch  its  edge 
should  not  be  cut  nearer  than  one  foot  to  the  tall  stakes. 

246.  Grade  stakes  and  finders  not  needed.  —  As  is 
readily  seen,  in  using  such  a  scheme  as  that  above  de- 
scribed, the  grade  stake  is  of  little  service,  and  may  be 
dispensed  with.     When  the  grade  stake  is  dispensed  with, 
care  should  be  exercised  to  have  the  long  stakes  stand  in 
fair  alignment,  and  one  foot  back  from  where  it  is  desired 
to  have  the  edge  of  the  ditch.     The  finder  is  also  unneces- 
sary.    Any  data  may  be  recorded  on  the  long  stake. 

247.  For  more  extensive  work.  —  For  drains  of  con- 
siderable length,  and  on  lands  of  considerable  roughness 
of  contour,  the  leveling  may  be  done  with  the  hose-level, 
without  rods,  but  some  modifications  must  be  introduced. 
Under  such  conditions,  it  might  be  necessary  to  divide  the 
drain,  into  sections  and  to  level  for  each  section  separately. 
The  fall  (in  surface)  for  each  section  might  be  determined 
separately.     This  would  most  likely  result  in  a  break  in 
grade  between  sections,  and  it  would  be  necessary  to  ob- 
serve the  precautions  previously  indicated  regarding  the  use 
of  silt  basins  at  breaks  in  grade.      It  is  entirely  practical, 
however,  to  level  and  find  the  fall  for  each  section  sepa- 
rately, and  to  combine  the  falls  and  establish  a  constant 
grade  for  the  entire  drain  or  to  establish  breaks  in  grade 
at  other  than  section  points  —  to  conform  grade  to  the 
contour  of  the  line  of  the  drain,  as  in  any  other  case. 
In  establishing  grade,  proper  corrections  must  be  made  in 
passing  from  one  section  to  another. 


CHAPTER  XI 
DRAINAGE  INDICATIONS 

IT  seems  desirable  to  set  forth,  specifically,  a  few  of  the 
more  important  situations  that  indicate  when  drainage 
is  necessary.  It  often  occurs  that  conditions  exist  which 
produce  effects  in  the  way  of  crop  failure,  unsatisfactory 
soil  conditions,  and  the  like ;  and  the  farmer  is  unable  to 
comprehend  the  cause,  or  if  so,  he  still  fails  to  determine 
upon  the  remedy  and  to  apply  it.  The  following  para- 
graphs will  set  forth,  briefly,  some  of  these  conditions. 

248.  Low  flat  areas  of  light  soil.  —  Probably  the 
commonest  case  is  that  of  rather  flat,  low-lying  areas, 
where  surface  water  does  not  lie  long  upon  the  ground. 
It  runs  away  largely  as  surface  drainage  or  sinks  quickly 
into  the  ground.  Because  of  this  rapid  disappearance, 
and  the  absence  of  small  long-standing  pools  upon  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  it  is  assumed  that  the  land  is  well 
drained.  An  examination,  however,  with  spade  or  auger 
may  show  that  the  water-table  stands  within  two  feet, 
and  often  within  a  few  inches  of  the  surface  of  the  land. 

It  is  not  unusual  to  find  areas  of  this  sort  with  surface 
soil  a  sand  or  sandy  loam,  which  helps  to  mislead  one  as  to 
the  real  causes  of  misbehavior  of  the  land.  Recently  an 
appeal  came  from  a  farmer  to  the  soils  department  of  an 
agricultural  college,  setting  forth  the  peculiar  behavior  of 
a  field,  and  asking  for  advice  as  to  methods  of  soil  man- 
agement to  be  employed  and  the  brand  of  fertilizer  that 

187 


188  LAND   DRAINAGE 

should  be  used.  A  representative  of  the  college  visited 
the  farm.  He  found  that  the  crop  (corn)  growing  upon 
the  field  was  very  pale  and  lacking  in  vigor.  The  symp- 
toms all  indicated  a  wet  soil.  The  owner  was  sure  the 
land  was  naturally  well  drained.  An  examination  re- 
vealed the  fact  that  in  many  places  the  water-table  stood 
within  a  foot  of  the  surface. 

The  difficulty  in  these  cases  is  due  to  the  presence  of 
an  underlying  impervious  layer  of  subsoil.  It  is  most  fre- 
quently a  stratum  of  clay.  It  is  sometimes  a  layer  of 


^^^^^^^^^^^^^s^^ 


FIG.  77.  —  To  illustrate  the  conditions  described  in  paragraph  248.  S 
represents  soil,  which  may  range  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet  in 
thickness.  /,  impervious  or  semi-pervious  layer.  It  may  be  clay, 
hard-pan,  or  rock,  which  may  range  from  a  few  inches  to  many  feet 
in  thickness.  It  usually  occupies  horizontal  position. 

sand-iron  hard-pan.  Sometimes  it  lies  within  two  or  three 
feet  of  the  surface.  If  within  three  feet,  it  is  usually 
desirable  to  set  the  tile  down  in  this  subsoil  sufficiently 
to  give  to  the  drain  a  total  depth  of  at  least  three  feet. 
(See  Fig.  77.) 

249.  Considerable  slopes  of  light  soil.  —  In  Fig.  78  is 
illustrated  an  interesting  case.  The  soil  occupies  an 
irregular  slope  and  is  a  rich  sandy  loam  underlaid,  as 
shown,  by  a  sandy  hard-pan.  The  hard-pan  permitted 
only  slight  movements  of  water  downward,  and  while  the 
soil  was  a  sandy  loam  and,  therefore,  fairly  open,  it  did 
not  permit  a  sufficiently  rapid  movement  of  soil  water, 
laterally  to  provide  the  necessary  drainage.  The  result 
was  that  while  the  field  appeared  to  have  excellent  natural 


DRAINAGE   INDICATIONS 


189 


drainage,  and  while  the  soil  was  apparently  of  excellent 
quality,  it  actually  was  very  unproductive  because  of  the 
over-wet  condition  of  the  soil. 

250.   Extended  flat  or  even  moderately  rolling  areas  of 
heavy  soils.  —  On  these  areas,  after  a  rain  or  during  and 


FIG.  78.  —  To  illustrate  the  condition  existing  in  a  field  drained  in  October, 
1914.  S,  the  soil  ranged  from  18  inches  to  36  inches  in  depth.  /, 
a  sandy  hard-pan  averaging  6  inches  thick,  and  underlaid  by  a  coarser 
sandy  soil,  which  in  turn  extends  down  to  the  underlying  lime  stone. 
Several  areas  in  the  field  were  very  wet  before  the  field  was  drained. 

after  spring  thaws,  the  water  stands  on  the  flat  parts  or 
in  the  surface  depressions.  Frequently  the  higher  parts 
of  rolling  fields  may  be  ready  for  the  harrow  or  plow,  but 
work  is  deferred  because  of  the  wetness  of  the  low  places 
or  depressions.  Not  infrequently  the  beginning  of  field 


FIG.  79.  —  The   condition  described  in  paragraph  250.     The  soil  S.I  is 
a  heavy  clay,  which  allows  but  slow  movement  of  water  through  it. 

operations  is  thus  so  greatly  delayed  that  under  the  action 
of  sun  and  winds,  the  soil  of  much  of  the  higher  parts  of 
the  field  becomes  over-dry  before  it  can  be  (or  is)  subjected 
to  harrow  or  plow,  and  may  even  thus  become  unfitted 
to  receive  the  seeding  which  follows. 

This  undesirable  moisture  condition  is  due  to  the  heavy 
or  impervious  nature  of  soil  and  usually  the  immediate 


190 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


subsoil.  Proper  drainage  produces  a  more  pervious  con- 
dition of  both  soil  and  subsoil,  which  eventually,  usually 
shortly,  results  in  the  immediate  removal  of  all  surplus 
water  (Fig.  79). 


FIG.  80.  —  To  illustrate  the  first  conditions  described  in  paragraph  251. 
S.I,  a  clay  soil.  If  the  area  be  not  too  wide,  a  tile  laid  at  T,  the  center 
of  the  area  and  at  right  angles  to  the  slope,  will  remove  the  water. 

251.  Limited  flat  or  depressed  areas  on  slopes.  — 
Two  cases  are  illustrated  by  Figs.  80  and  81.  In  the  first 
the  soil  is  a  heavy  clay  or  till.  In  the  second  example 
the  soil,  a  sand  or  loam,  is  underlaid  by  a  heavy  clay  or 
till,  which,  partly  because  of  its  imperviousness,  and 


FIG.  81.  —  To  illustrate  the  second  condition  mentioned  in  paragraph  251. 
S  is  an  ordinary  soil  underlaid  by  /,  an  imperVious  or  semi-pervious 
layer.  The  actual  condition  might  vary  considerably  from  that 
shown  in  the  cut,  but  the  general  results  would  be  the  same.  If 
the  area  be  not  too  wide,  a  tile  laid  at  T,  under  the  foot  of  the  upper 
slope  and  at  right  angles  to  it,  will  take  care  of  the  water. 

partly  because  of  its  saucer-like  shape,  holds  the  water, 
and  thus  renders  the  soil  above  unproductive.  In  the 
first  case,  the  water  is  held  upon  the  surface  until  it  has 
slowly  disappeared,  partly  down  through  the  soil,  and 
partly  by  evaporation.  In  the  second  case,  the  water  is 


DRAINAGE   INDICATIONS 


191 


held  below  the  surface  until  it  is  removed  by  the  same 
processes.  In  both  cases,  injury  is  worked  to  both  soil 
and  crop. 

252.   Limited  flat  or  depressed  areas  on  hilltops.  —  The 
soil  conditions  in  this  case  do  not  differ  from  the  last 


FIG.  82.  —  To  show  how  a  heavy  clay  soil,  surmounting  a  hill  top,  as 
described  in  paragraph  252,  might  retain  a  large  amount  of  water 
and  require  draining. 

named  except  in  position.  (See  Figs.  82  and  83.)  A 
case  of  this  class  is  mentioned  in  a  previous  paragraph. 
An  area  of  this  kind  amounting  to  a  half  acre  was  so  wet 
that  it  could  not  be  spring-plowed  in  time  for  a  crop. 

^ lORods _ J 


FIG.  83.  —  To  show  another  condition  that  would  result  in  the  over-wet 
hill  top  mentioned  in  paragraph  252.  S,  any  fairly  open  to  open 
soil.  /,  an  impervious  or  semi-pervious  layer  ranging  from  a  few 
inches  to  several  feet  in  thickness.  It  may  be  underlaid  by  a  very 
open  soil. 

Later  in  the  season  a  simple  system  of  tile  was  laid  with 
its  outlet  50  yards  down  the  slope,  and  close  to  the  line 
fence.  After  a  few  years  the  outlet  was  connected  to  a 
near-by  lateral  of  another  tile  system.  No  trouble  has 
been  experienced  from  wet  ground  on  the  hill  top  since 
the  system  was  installed. 


192 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


253.  Springy  low  flat  areas.  —  The  springs  in  low  flat 
areas  occur  because  the  underground  water,  moving  from 
other  higher  areas,  cannot  escape  downward  sufficiently 
rapidly  because  of  underlying  clay,  hard-pan,  or  rock. 


FIG.  84.  —  To  show  how  a  springy  condition  might  be  produced.  The 
clay  or  hard-pan  /  would  divert  the  water  sinking  through  the  soil 
S,  and  cause  it  to  saturate  and  rise  through  the  low  lying  soil  (ab). 
See  paragraph  253. 

The  water,  therefore,  comes  to  the  surface  as  springs. 
(See  Fig.  84.)  Sometimes  this  underground  water  ap- 
proaches between  two  impervious  layers  as  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  85.  Such  a  condition  as  this  was  discovered,  to 


FIG.  85.  —  To  illustrate  the  second  condition  mentioned  in  paragraph 
253.  S,  any  fairly  open  soil.  7,  /,  clay  or  hard-pan.  G,  a  sand  or 
gravel  layer  filled  with  water  gathered  at  some  higher  point.  This 
water  is  under  pressure,  and,  therefore,  rises  through  any  opening 
that  may  occur  in  the  upper  layer  of  clay  or  hard-pan. 

exist  over  an  extended  area  in  England,  and  led  to  a  very 
interesting  and  successful  line  of  tile  drainage  in  that 
country  as  early  as  the  year  1764. 

A  line  or  system  of  tile,  properly  placed,  intercepts  and 
carries  off  the  water  which  otherwise  would  rise  to  the 
surface  and  keep  the  soil  wet  and  cold.  The  amount  of 


DRAINAGE   INDICATIONS  193 

tiling  required  will  depend  on  the  size  of  the  area.  If  it 
were  found  that  but  one  spring  existed  in  the  tract,  an 
arrangement  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  86  would  remove 
the  water.  If  there  were  several  springs,  a  line  or  a 
system  of  tile  might  be  required,  depending  upon  the 
relative  location  of  the  springs  and  the  nature  of  soil  of 
the  area  and  its  size.  If  the  condition  were  like  that 
shown  in  Fig.  84,  a  single  line  of  tile,  laid  at  proper  depth, 
and  along  the  base  of  the  slope  (under  a),  and  at  right 
angles  to  it  would  intercept  and  carry  off  the  water. 


^tfC^::^ 

FIG.  86.  —  To  show  how  the  well,  mentioned  in  paragraph  253,  two  feet 
in  diameter,  may  be  sunk,  and  filled  with  stone  to  permit  the  ready 
passage  of  the  water  of  a  spring  to  the  drain  tile  and  so  increase 
the  efficiency  of  the  tile.  The  dimensions  shown  in  the  figure  must 
of  course  vary  with  conditions.  The  size  of  tile  required  will  vary 
with  the  size  of  the  spring. 


254.  Springy  areas  upon  slopes.  —  A  springy  area 
well  up  on  a  considerable  slope  is  a  rather  common  thing, 
especially  in  the  drift  soils.  Sometimes  the  area  is  small  ; 
sometimes  it  includes  several  acres.  The  presence  of 
the  springs  is  due  to  conditions  similar  to  those  producing 
springs  on  the  low  areas.  The  situation  and  the  facts 
are  presented  only  to  show  that  the  causes  and  the  remedy 
are  the  same,  and  as  simple  as  in  the  previous  case.  (See 
Fig.  87.)  In  limestone  formations,  a  condition  occurs 
which  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  88,  taken  from  Fippin,  Cornell 
Reading  Course.  It  is  self-explanatory. 


194 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


255.   Muck  or  swamp  areas.  —  The  muck  soils  vary 
greatly  in  depth,  the  range  being  from  a  few  inches  to 


FIG.  87.  —  To  show  how  springs  may  occur  on  slopes,  as  mentioned  in 
paragraph  254.  Water  sinking  through  soil  S  is  deflected  by  the 
layer  of  clay  or  hard-pan  /,  and  caused  to  appear  at  the  surface  at 
a,  and  to  saturate  the  surface  as  far  at  least  as  6. 

many  feet.  When  the  area  does  not  exceed  forty  to  eighty 
acres,  and  when  it  lies  adjacent  to  a  fairly  deep  natural 
waterway  or  to  a  good  open  ditch,  the  drainage  needs  and 


FIG.  88.  —  Sectional  view  of  soil  and  rock  formation,  showing  the  under- 
ground movement  of  water  and  the  position  of  resulting  wet  areas 
on  the  surface.  In  addition  to  the  springy  places,  the  soil  is  kept 
wet  by  the  seepage  of  water  along  the  top  of  the  compact  subsoil. 
This  figure  also  illustrates  the  reason  for  locating  a  cross  drain  above 
the  springy  area  in  order  to  effect  drainage.  This  method  cuts  off 
the  water  supply.  (Fippin,  Cornell  Reading  Course.) 


DRAINAGE  INDICATIONS  195 

operations  are  simple.  The  chief  precaution  is  to  set  the 
tile  at  a  good  depth,  remembering  that  muck  soils  lose 
greatly  in  volume  when  drained,  with  the  result  that  after 
a  few  years  the  surface  settles  so  near  the  tile  that  they 
may  be  endangered  from  frost  and  agricultural  tools.  The 
writer  has  been  under  the  necessity  of  lowering  a  number 
of  systems  of  tile  in  muck  soils  because  of  the  shrinking 
of  the  mass  and  consequent  settling  of  the  surface. 

256.  Small  muck  areas  without  natural  outlets.  —  It 
frequently  happens,  especially  in  the  glacial  drift  areas, 
that  one  to  several  small  muck  areas  occur  on  a  single 


FIG.  89.  —  To  illustrate  the  isolated  muck  areas  mentioned  in  paragraph 
256.  The  line  of  tile  laid  to  drain  the  area  is  shown.  S,  soil ;  M , 
muck  ;  /,  underlying  clay. 

farm.  They  may  range  from  one-fourth  acre  to  five 
acres,  entirely  surrounded  by  higher  land.  When  the 
surface  of  the  muck  area  stands  higher  than  an  adjacent 
low  area,  as  it  often  does,  and  when  the  horizontal  dis- 
tance between  the  two  is  not  great,  it  may  be  drained 
by  laying  a  line  of  tile  through  the  high  ground,  separat- 
ing it  from  the  adjacent  low  area,  to  the  low  ground. 
This  line  may  discharge  into  a  line  of  tile  in  the  lower 
area  (see  Fig.  89)  or  into  a  natural  water  way  or  open 
ditch. 

When  the  surface  of  the  area  is  so  low  that  sufficient 
fall  cannot  be  secured  in  draining  to  an  adjacent  area, 
or  where  the  horizontal  distance  is  great  or  the  separating 
ridge  is  high,  but  one  possible  economical  means  of  drain- 


196  LAND   DRAINAGE 

age  is  left  —  that  by  well.  The  feasibility  of  draining 
by  well  can  be  determined  only  by  trial.  (See  paragraph 
202.)  Figure  89  shows  a  muck  which  was  drained  by  tile 
drain.  The  area  drained  was  about  two  acres.  The 
depth  of  cut  at  ab  was  13  feet.  The  price  paid  for  digging 
15  rods,  laying  the  tile  and  filling  of  the  cut  was  $2  a 
rod.  It  was  considered  a  good  investment.  In  another 
instance  $1  a  rod  was  paid  for  digging,  laying  tile,  and 
filling  25  rods  of  outlet  to  8  acres  of  muck  swamp. 

257.  Shallow  ponds  resting  upon  muck  beds.  —  In 
some  cases  these  shallow  ponds  are  permanent,  occupying 
their  beds  the  year  through.  In  some  cases  their  beds 
are  dry  a  part  of  the  year.  The  description  of  an  experi- 
ence in  draining  such  a  pond  may  be  helpful.  The  pond 
in  question  had  an  area  of  perhaps  two  acres  and  was 
permanent.  Its  bed  occupied  a  part  of  a  6-acre  muck  area. 
A  shallow  open  ditch,  extending  40  rods  through  an  ad- 
jacent field,  was  dug  to  drain  the  water  from  its  bed. 
Later  the  same  open  ditch  was  lowered  and  extended  the 
length  of  the  muck  area,  and  at  a  maximum  depth  of  18 
inches.  It  was  discovered  that  the  muck  was  very  shallow 
and  rested  upon  a  heavy  clay  subsoil.  The  bottom  of 
the  18-inch  ditch  rested  in  the  clay  subsoil  at  practically 
every  point.  After  the  open  ditch  had  been  in  operation 
two  years,  the  muck  area  was  tiled,  the  main  line  of  the 
tile  occupying  the  line  of  the  last  mentioned  open  ditch 
through  the  muck  area.  The  outlet  was  accomplished 
by  a  line  of  tile  not  following  the  original  open  drain  in 
the  adjoining  field.  The  obtainable  fall  was  so  slight 
that  the  depth  of  the  main  tile  drain  in  the  muck  area 
did  not  exceed  three  feet  at  any  point,  while  at  some 
points  it  did  not  exceed  two  feet.  The  tile  drain  has 
been  in  successful  operation  ever  since  its  installation 


DRAINAGE  INDICATIONS 


six  years  ago.  Figure  90  shows  a 
profile  section  through  the  center  of 
the  pond  bed. 

258.  Shallow  ponds  resting  on  other 
than  muck  beds. — The  nature  of  the 
soil  comprising  the  bed  of  the  pond 
is  not  so  material  as  whether  there  is 
sufficient  natural  fall  to  a  water  course 
or  to  an  open  ditch.     Where  the  con- 
dition of  fall  and  outlet  are  correct, 
the  pond  can  usually  be  drained. 

259.  Shallow    ponds     not    having 
sufficient   fall    or    natural    outlet.  - 
Shallow  ponds  sometimes  occur  both 
upon  muck  beds  and  upon  clay  or 
loam  beds,  where  conditions  do  not 
permit  tile  drainage.     There  may  not 
be  sufficient  fall ;    the  distance  over 
which  the  drain  must  extend  and  the 
depth  of  digging  required  may  be  too 
great.     In  either  case  there  remains 
the  possibility   of   draining   by  well. 
(See  paragraph  202.)     A  very  inter- 
esting case  of  this  kind  is  reported  in 
Water    Supply    Paper    258,    United 
States  Geological  Survey. 

260.  Low  flat  areas  whose  surfaces 
lie  only  slightly  above  that  of  an  ad- 
jacent stream  or  lake,  which  cannot 
be   lowered  by  drainage.  —  In   1894 
the    Wisconsin    Experiment    Station 
undertook  an  interesting  experiment 
in  draining  a   10-acre  area  of  muck 


xv«^| 

m 


198  LAND   DRAINAGE 

soil.1  The  area  lay  adjacent  to  a  stream  which  emptied 
into  Lake  Mendota  less  than  half  a  mile  away.  The 
stream  could  not,  therefore,  be  lowered.  The  method  of 
procedure  was  somewhat  as  follows : 

1.  The  area  to  be  drained  was  cut  off  from  the  bank  of 
the  stream  by  cutting  a  narrow  trench,  parallel  to  the 
stream  and  probably  four  feet  deep  (the  depth  is  not  given 
in  the  report).     This  trench  was  filled  with  clayey  soil 
hauled  from  higher  ground  near  by,  so  that  when  the 
earth  was  fully  settled  and  the  hauling  completed,  the 
top  of  the  dike  thus  formed  stood  18  inches  above  the 
surface  of  the  stream.     This  artificial  dike  was  to  prevent 
the  passage  of  water  from  the  stream  to  the  drained  area 
either  by  seepage  or  overflow. 

2.  At  one  corner  of  the  area,  just  in  from  the  dike,  a 
reservoir  or  sump,  40  feet  by  60  feet  and  4  feet  deep,  was 
dug.     An  open  ditch  dug  parallel  to  the   dike  and  ten 
feet  from  it  opened  into  the  reservoir.     Later,  tile  drains 
were   laid   two   rods   apart,   emptying   into   the   opened 
ditch;    a  few  of  them  opened  into  the  reservoir,  so  that 
the  drainage  water  from  the  whole  system  gravitated  to 
the  reservoir.     Between  the    reservoir  and  the    dike  a 
well  4  feet  deep  was  dug,  walled  with  brick,  and  connected 
with  the  reservoir  by  a  line  of  6-inch  sewer  tile.     "  Over 
the  well  was  placed   a  fourteen  foot  eclipse  windmill, 
carried  on  a  forty-foot  tower.      The  pump  rod  of  the 
windmill  was  attached  to  an  eight  by  twelve  inch  iron 
pump  placed  low  down  in  the  well."     By  this  means  the 
drainage  water  was  lifted  over  the  dike  from  the  well. 
For  several  years  the  windmill,  which  was  in  gear  all  the 
time,  removed  the  drainage  water  from  the  10-acre  area. 

1  Twelfth  Annual  Report  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,  p. 
232. 


DRAINAGE   INDICATIONS  199 

Arrangements  were  made  for  an  extra  pump,  but  it  was 
seldom  if  ever  used. 

The  drainage  sytem  has  now  been  in  operation  twenty- 
one  years.  "  The  old  windmill  has  worn  out  and  we  now 
have  an  electric  motor  to  run  the  pump.  About  twenty 
acres  on  the  west  side  of  the  creek  has  been  added  to  the 
project  and  the  water  from  it  is  brought  into  the  old 
reservoir  by  an  iron  pipe  under  the  creek.  The  tile  run 
practically  all  of  the  time.  A  float  on  the  water  in  the 
reservoir  starts  the  motor  as  soon  as  the  water  is  high 
enough  to  reach  the  bottom  of  the  tile  and  it  stops  auto- 
matically as  soon  as  the  reservoir  is  empty.  The  system 
is  a  success  in  every  way."  —  E.  R.  JONES. 

261.  Situations  akeady  referred  to.  —  The  laying  of 
tile  through  quicksand,  the  removing  of  water  directly 
from  springs  met  with  in  draining  boggy  places,  and  the 
utilizing  of  special  means  to  remove  excessive  accumula- 
tions of  surface  water  to  underground  drains  have  been 
discussed  in  paragraphs  207,  208,  and  209  respectively. 
While  they  have  been  treated  as  matters  pertaining  to 
construction,  in  another  sense  they  are  closely  allied  to 
the  matters  discussed  in  this  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XII 
DRAINAGE  AND  THE  GROUND  WATER  SUPPLY 

ALARM  is  expressed  from  time  to  time  over  what  is  looked 
upon  as  a  diminishing  ground  water  supply.  Both  open 
ditching  and  tile  draining  are  charged  with  removing 
water  which  otherwise  would  wholly,  or  in  part,  sink  into 
the  lower  soil  to  retain  the  ground  water  at  normal  con- 
dition. 

262.  The  ground  water-table  is  falling.  —  In  many 
parts  of  the  United  States,  it  is  a  matter  of  common  knowl- 
edge that  for  years  springs  have  been  drying  up  or  dimin- 
ishing in  volume.  Streams  that  once  flowed  in  consider- 
able volume  have  disappeared.  In  some  cases  they  still 
flow  for  a  short  distance  over  their  old  beds  and  finally 
disappear  below  the  surface.  Wells  that  once  furnished  an 
abundant  supply  of  water  at  10  to  30  feet  below  the 
surface  have  failed  in  their  supply,  to  be,  in  some  cases, 
supplanted  by  other  wells  of  twice  their  depth.  These 
in  turn  have  sometimes  failed,  and  have  given  place  to 
drilled  wells  of  much  greater  depth.  The  depth  of  water 
of  many  of  the  deep-drilled  wells  is  said  to  be  decreasing. 
From  data  gathered  upon  nearly  29,000  wells  located  in 
forty-eight  states,  McGee  l  shows  that  in  some  regions 
there  is  a  considerable  fall  in  the  ground  water  level,  and 
that  the  fall  is  greater  in  dug  than  in  drilled  wells.  From 

1  W  J  McGee,  BuUetin  92,  Bureau  of  Soils,  "Wells  and  Sub- 
soil Water." 

200 


DRAINAGE   AND   GROUND   WATER  SUPPLY     201 

the  rather  more  complete  data  obtained  on  nearly  21,000 
of  these  wells,  the  following  conclusions  are  drawn : 

46.2  per  cent  show  change  in  water  level ; 

53.8  per  cent  show  no  change  in  water  level. 

A  part  of  these  were  dug  wells  and  a  part  were  drilled 
wells. 

Of  the  dug  wells  53.6  per  cent  showed  change ; 

Of  the  drilled  wells  only  23.4  per  cent  showed  change. 

Of  the  dug  wells,  for  the  period  covered  by  the  data : 

45.5  per  cent  showed  a  mean  lowering  of  4.31  feet ; 

17.5  per  cent  showed  a  mean  rise  of  3.68  feet. 

Of  the  drilled  wells,  for  the  period  covered  by  the  data  : 

21.25  per  cent  lowered  to  the  mean  amount  of  12.83 
feet; 

3.3  per  cent  gave  a  mean  rise  of  11.08  feet. 

"  The  minimum  lowering  per  decade  for  the  entire 
country  is  but  0.677  for  the  dug  wells,  and  over  three  times 
as  much,  or  2.167  feet  for  the  drilled  wells." 

263.  Interesting  facts  concerning  ground  water-tables. 
—  Of  the  nearly  29,000  wells,  over  61  per  cent  have  their 

water-table  within  30  feet  of  the  surface,  and  only  5.7 
per  cent  (1635  wells)  have  their  water-table  below  100 
feet  from  the  surface,  and  nearly  one-fifth  of  these  (307) 
are  in  one  state. 

264.  Chief   causes   resulting    in  lowering   of    ground 
water.  —  Several  causes  are  suggested  as  probably  having 
a  part  in  producing  the  lowering  of  ground  water.     The 
ones  most  commonly  offered  may  be  grouped  as :   (1) 
those  resulting  in  increased  losses  by  surface  drainage  — 
in  increasing  the  run-off ;    (2)  those  resulting  in  increased 
losses  by  evaporation  —  increasing  the  fly-off ;    (3)  the 
removal  of  natural  surface  reservoirs;    and  (4)  a  direct 
draft  upon  the  waters  themselves. 


202  LAND   DRAINAGE 

265.  Increasing  the  run-off.  —  The  removal  of  forests, 
the  breaking  of  prairies,  and  careless  cropping  and  indif- 
ferent tillage  of  lands  after  they  are  brought  under  culti- 
vation all  tend  to  increase  the  percentage  of  precipitation 
which  fails  to  enter  the  ground,  but  instead  runs  off  as 
surface  drainage.     Natural  vegetation,  whether  forest  or 
prairie,  with  the  resulting  earth  covering,   permits  the 
excess  of  precipitation  to  move  off  so  slowly  that  a  very 
considerable  portion  of  it  enters  the  soil  to  become  ground 
water  —  and  thus,  to  become  "  cut-off  "  water  instead  of 
"  run-off  "  water.     The  absence  of  the  forest  and  prairie 
conditions,  and  the  compacted  or  puddled  soil  which  is 
likely  to  result  from  bad  soil  management,  increases  the 
run-off  and  decreases  the  cut-off.1 

266.  Increasing  evaporation.  —  The  removal  of  forest 
and  prairie  vegetation  and  the  indifferent  management  of 
cultivated  land  undoubtedly  result    in    great  losses  by 
surface  evaporation.     It   may  be  questioned,   however, 
whether  the  mere  removal  of  forest  and  prairie  vegetation 
need   increase   evaporation  losses,   if  honest,   intelligent 
soil  management  were  followed.     But  it  too  often  is  not. 

267.  The  removal  of  surface  reservoirs.  —  It  is  con- 
tended by  some  that  the  draining  of  ponds  and  swamps 
by  open  ditch  or  tile  drain  removes  water,  much  of  which 
would  eventually  find  its  way,  by  gravity,  to  become  a 
part  of  the  great  underground  supply,  and  that  as  a  part 
of  this  supply  it  would  eventually  become  distributed  to 
points  quite  remote  from  its  original  point  of  storage. 
This  is  probably  correct,  in  part  at  least.     It  may  very 
reasonably  be  questioned,  however,  whether  this  replen- 
ishment of  the  underground  water  supply  would  prove  of 

1  For  definition  of  cut-off,  run-off,  and  fly-off,  see  F.  K.  Cam- 
eron, The  Soil  Solution,  p.  22. 


DRAINAGE   AND   GROUND    WATER  SUPPLY     203 

as  great  economic  value  to  human  kind  as  will  the  land 
thus  reclaimed  by  drainage.  Where  the  drainage  of  such 
areas  is  accomplished  by  means  of  wells,  both  contentions 
are  satisfied. 

Even  ordinary  tile  drainage,  practiced  for  the  purpose 
of  permitting  soils  to  do  reasonable  service  agriculturally, 
is  regarded  with  suspicion  by  those  who  are  jealous  for  the 
future  safety  of  the  nation  —  as  depending  upon  future 
food  and  water  supply. 

268.  Direct   draft  upon  underground   waters.  —  This 
draft  is  brought  about :    (a)  in  the  draining  of  mines  by 
pumps  or  tunnels ;    (b)  in  the  action  of  artesian  wells,  es- 
pecially where  they  are  permitted  to  operate  uncontrolled  ; 
and  (c)  in  the  procuring  of  a  city's  water  supply  by  means 
of  municipal  wells.     The  draining  of  mines,  the  digging 
of  artesian  wells,  and  of  city  and  other  wells  are  all  legiti- 
mate, and  could  hardly  be  forbidden  by  law.     It  would 
seem,  however,  that  the  reckless  wastefulness,  practiced 
in  some  of  the  artesian  basins  of  our  country,  might  be, 
and  should  be,  restricted  by  law. 

269.  The  interpretations  placed  on  the  fact  of  a  falling 
ground  water-table.  —  We  are  frequently  startled  by  the 
appearance  of  an  article  in  the  public  press,1  or  a  public 
utterance  prophesying  a  serious  future  condition  because 
of  a  failing  water  supply.     Such  prophecies  might  be  con- 
sidered seriously  if  there  were  positive  assurances  that  the 
past  and  present  falling  of  the  ground  water-table  must 
continue.     The  history  of  older  countries  in  this  regard, 
however,  does  not  warrant  such   prophecies.     A  review 
at  the  expense  of  repetition  may  be  desirable  in  the  way  of 
a  comparison  of  water  demand  and  water  supply. 

1  Literary  Digest,  Vol.  48,  No.  2,  p.  59. 


204  LAND   DRAINAGE 

270.  Crop  needs.  —  McGee  says,  "  In  ordinary  farm- 
ing, the  agricultural  duty  of  water  is  to  produce  one 
thousandth  of  its  weight  in  useful  crops  "  and  "  on  ordi- 
nary soils  the  water  required  for  full  productivity  is  about 
60  inches  (5  feet)  per  year."  1 

England  leads  the  nations  in  acre  yields  of  grains. 
The  average  yield  of  wheat  (1902-1911  inclusive)  was 
33  Winchester  bushels  (41.25  American  bushels)  to  the 
acre. 

B.  C.  Wallis  says,  "  In  England  wheat  is  not  grown  well 
where  the  -rainfall  exceeds  thirty  inches,"  and  again, 
"  As  regards  rainfall,  the  annual  precipitation  of  Ohio  is 
greater  than  that  of  Cheshire  "  (England).  The  maxi- 
mum average  yield  of  wheat  in  Ohio  for  any  year  1870- 
1911,  occurred  in  1910,  and  was  16.2  bushels  to  the  acre.2 
Undoubtedly  during  the  same  period  there  occurred,  in 
Ohio,  individual  yields  exceeding  40  bushels  to  the  acre, 
indicating  the  possibilities  with  present  actual  rainfall. 

According  to  King,  12  acre-inches,  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions,  may  be  expected  to  produce  40 
bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre.  It  would  produce  over  70 
bushels  of  corn,  or  about  78  bushels  of  oats,  or  about  55 
bushels  of  barley  to  the  acre.3  These  citations  are  made 
to  show  the  range  of  possible  water  service,  in  ordinary, 
good,  and  ideal  practice  in  crop  production. 

271.  Animal  needs.  —  The  average  adult  person  prob- 
ably uses  less  than  one  ton  of  water  per  annum  for  food 
and  drink.     Assuming  that  he  used  a  barrel  of  water  a 


1  Subsoil  Water  of  Central  United  States,  Yearbook,  1911,  pp. 
479-490.    Also  the  Agricultural  Duty  of  Water,  Yearbook  1910, 
pp.  169-175. 

2  Yearbook,  1911,  p.  535. 

3  King's  Physics  of  Agriculture,  p.  141. 


DRAINAGE   AND   GROUND   WATER   SUPPLY      205 

week,  for  all  other  purposes,  the  total  water  used  for  an 
individual  would  amount  to  10  tons  per  annum. 

Farm  animals  consume  from  100  to  150  pounds  of  water 
daily  for  each  1000  pounds  of  animal.  Dairy  animals 
producing  milk  probably  consume  not  far  from  100  pounds 
of  water  daily  for  each  1000  pounds  of  weight.  It  is 
probably  liberal  to  allow  100  pounds  of  water  a  day  for 
each  1000  pounds  of  meat  produced  on  the  farm  up  to 
the  time  it  is  marketed. 

For  the  purpose  of  bringing  the  water  thus  used  on  the 
farm  into  comparison  with  the  rainfall  of  a  region,  and 
without  attempt  at  accuracy,  except  to  make  our  allow- 
ances for  water-use  sufficiently  large,  let  us  assume  a 
condition  for  an  80-acre  farm. 

(a)  Dairy  animals   aggregating  1000  pounds  for  each 
acre  of  farm ;   or 

(b)  Meat-or  wool-producing  animals  or  horses  aggregat- 
ing 1000  pounds  to  an  acre  of  farm,  in  either  case  requiring 
100  pounds  of  water  a  day,  or  18.25  tons  of  water  an  acre 
for  the  year ; 

(c)  That  there  are  on  the  farm  eight  persons,  and  that 
each  person  shall  be  allowed  10  tons  of  water  annually, 
the   adult   allowance   for  drinking  and   other  purposes. 
This  amounts  to  1  ton  to  the  acre  for  the  whole  farm,  which, 
added  to  the  amount  allowed  for  the  live-stock,  makes  a 
total  of  19.25  tons  of  water  to  the  acre  annually.     This 
is  equivalent  to  a  little  more  than  one-sixth  (-J-)  of  an  inch 
of  rainfall.1     Very  few  farms  are  so  heavily  stocked,  and 
relatively  few  will  be  for  many  years  to  come.     As  a 
matter  of  fact  much  of  the  water  used  by  both  persons  and 
animals  finds  its  way  back  to  the  soil  and  is  therefore  not 
lost  to  it. 

1  Compare  McGee,  Bulletin  No.  92,  Bureau  of  Soils,  p.  180. 


206  LAND   DRAINAGE 

272.  The   meaning   of   the   lowering   of   the   ground 
water-table  in  terms  of  rainfall.  —  The  greatest  mean 
lowering  of  ground  water-table  in  any  state  recorded  by 
McGee  is  4.663  feet  for  ten  years,1  or  5.5956  inches  a  year. 
This  5.5956  inches  of  fall  would  be  counteracted  by  from 
1  inch  2  to  1 .4  inches  of  rain,  depending  upon  the  amount 
of  pore  space  existing  in  subsoil  or  rock. 

273.  Intelligent  soil  management  needed.  —  It  is  very 
likely  that  with  the  most  intelligent  soil  management 
during  the  transformation  of  great  regions  from  a  state 
of  nature  to  a  state  of  domestication  (agricultural  pro- 
duction), there  would  have  been  a  readjustment  of  the 
underlying  ground  water-table;    but  even  with  the  non- 
agricultural  agencies  at  work  (artesian  well,  mines,  muni- 
cipal wells  and  the  like)  the  change  would  not  have  been 
so  great  as  it  has  been  had  more  intelligent  and  less  selfish 
methods  been  employed  in  the  agricultural  practice  of 
these  regions. 

274.  The  case  not  serious.  —  But  the  case  is  not  so 
serious  as  many  alarmists  would  have  us  believe.     The 
rainfall  much  exceeds  that  required  for  our  present  acreage 
yields,  doubled,  trebled,  and  in  some  cases  quadrupled, 
in  our  humid  areas.     A  better  seasonal   distribution  of 
precipitation,   in   some  regions,   could   be  desired;    but 
even  unsatisfactory  seasonal  distribution  may  be  partly, 
if  not  wholly,  counteracted  by  proper  soil  management 
methods.     The  methods  to  be  employed  for  this  purpose 
will  undoubtedly  go  far  toward  arresting  a  further  lower- 
ing of  the  ground  water-table,  and  should  go  far  in  restor- 
ing it  toward  its  original  position.     The  run-off  must  be 
decreased ;  and  cut-off  must  and  can  be  increased. 

1  Bulletin  92,  Bureau  of  Soils,  p.  175. 

2  Waring,  Draining  for  Profit,  etc.,  p.  23. 


DRAINAGE   AND   GROUND   WATER  SJJPPLY      207 

275.  The  real  relation  of  drainage  to  capillary  and 
ground  water.  —  The  actual  effect  of  drainage  will  be  to 
assist  to  increase  both  capillary  soil  water  and  ground  water 
for  reasons  that  have  been  discussed  in  an  earlier  chapter, 
but  which  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows  : 

The  largest  exclusion  of  water  from  the  soil  occurs  where 
the  soil  is  improperly  drained,  with  proportionate  losses 
by  run-off  and  fly-off  (evaporation). 

Larger  absorption  of  water  occurs  where  soils  are  properly 
drained.  The  cut-off  is  increased. 

Proper  drainage  not  only  brings  about  a  more  open  struc- 
ture of  the  upper  soils,  but  eventually  of  the  lower  subsoils 
as  well,  so  that  while  the  cut-off  is  greatly  increased,  a  larger 
percentage  of  the  cut-off  will  find  its  way  below  the  tile. 

Better  tillage  is  the  natural  accompaniment  of  proper 
drainage,  and  absorption  (cut-off)  is  further  increased,  and 
evaporation  (fly-off)  is  diminished. 

276.  The  experience  of  other  countries.  —  In  England 
tile  drainage  has  been  practiced  since  1764,  and  is  one  of 
the  factors  placing  that  country  first  among  the  countries 
of  the   world   in   acre   yields   of   cereals.     The   greatest 
agricultural  countries  of  continental  Europe  have  been 
champions  of  drainage  for  many  years.     A  lowering  water- 
table  is  not,  at  the  present  time,  a  matter  of  alarm  with 
any  of  them. 

277.  Optimism.  —  "  The  chief  cause  of  the  lowering  of 
subsoil  water  is  remediable  ...  is  bound  to  be  remedied. 
It  [the  lowering]  can  be  prevented  ...  it  is  prevented  in 
every  carefully  worked  garden,  on  every  intensively  cul- 
tivated farm,  on  every  well  kept  lawn,  .   .   .     Each  farm 
should  be  made  to  take  care  of  all  the  water  falling  on  it 
during  the  entire  year."  1 

1  McGee,  Bulletin  92,  Bureau  of  Soils,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
DRAINAGE  AND  CLIMATE 

A  RATHER  general  opinion  is  current  that  the  climate  of 
this  country,  or  at  least  of  certain  parts  of  it,  is  under- 
going a  change.  But  while  there  is  general  agreement 
that  change  is  taking  place,  there  is  a  variety  of  opinion 
as  to  the  kinds  of  change  and  the  causes  thereof.  This 
opinion  includes : 

Changing  rainfall  —  in  some  cases  increasing  and  in 
some  cases  diminishing; 

Changing  temperature  —  summers  are  hotter  or  colder, 
the  winters  are  colder  or  warmer. 

278.  Diminishing  rainfall. — The  theory  that  our  annual 
rainfall  is  decreasing  seems  to  be  very  commonly  accepted. 
In  certain  parts  of  the  Upper  Missouri  Valley,  however, 
the  opinion  is  prevalent  that  the  annual  precipitation  is 
increasing,  that  the  "  rain  belt,"  as  they  say,  is  moving 
westward,  so  that  regions  once  lacking  sufficient  rainfall 
to  support  a  reasonable  crop  are  now  able  to  produce 
fair  returns. 

Where  a  decreasing  rainfall  is  supposed  to  be  occurring, 
the  decrease  is  charged  to  one  or  all  of  three  things : 
(1)  the  destruction  of  forests;  (2)  the  transformation 
of  great  prairie  into  agricultural  areas ;  (3)  the  draining 
of  areas,  large  and  small,  of  wet  and  semi-wet  lands,  and 
of  ponds  and  lakes. 

The  chief  reasons  offered  in  proof  of  a  diminishing 

208 


DRAINAGE   AND   CLIMATE  209 

rainfall  are :  (1)  the  apparently  insufficient  moisture 
supply  during  most  growing  seasons ;  and  (2)  the  falling 
ground  water-table  and  drying  up  of  springs,  discussed 
in  a  previous  chapter. 

Unquestionably,  the  insufficient  water  supply  for  grow- 
ing crops  must  be  charged,  very  largely,  to  carelessness 
and  the  unintelligent  methods  employed  in  soil  and  crop 
management.  The  falling  of  the  ground  water-table 
and  the  failing  of  springs  are  not  necessarily  due  to 
diminishing  rainfall,  as  was  shown  in  previous  chapter. 

279.  Floods  and  their  relation  to  rainfall.  —  The  occur- 
rence of  floods  is  sometimes  offered  as  a  proof  of  an  in- 
creasing rainfall.  Summer  floods,  and  sometimes  winter 
floods,  are  the  results  of  erratic  or  unusual  rainfall,  ex- 
cessive or  long  continued  or  both.  The  Paris  flood  of 
January,  1910,  was  due  to  heavy  rainfall  which  had  been 
preceded  by  rains  sufficiently  heavy  and  long  continued 
completely  to  saturate  the  soil.1  The  magnitude  of  this 
flood  was  such  that  the  Seine  River  carried  thirty  times 
its  normal  volume  of  water  at  twenty  times  its  usual  speed. 
At  the  time  of  the  Dayton  flood  in  March,  1913,  a  rainfall 
of  5  inches  occurred  in  one  24-hour  period  over  the  Miami 
basin,  and  a  total  of  8.8  inches  in  one  week.2  On  June 
17,  1915,  at  one  point  in  the  middle  Missouri  Valley  flood 
district,  5.78  inches  of  rain  fell  in  nine  hours.3  For  the 
month  of  June  the  rainfall  at  Columbia,  Missouri,  was  9.11 
inches ;  at  Topeka,  Kansas,  9.10  inches ;  at  lola,  Kansas, 
8.56  inches  and  at  Kansas  City,  7.88  inches.  These  erratic 
rainfalls,  however,  cannot  be  accepted  as  evidence  that  the 
mean  rainfall  of  any  region  is  increasing.  Erratic  rain- 

1  Scientific  American,  Vol.  Oil,  No.  8,  p.  164. 

2  A.  J.  Henry,  Weather  Bureau,  Bui.  Z,  1913. 

3  P.  Conner,  M.W.R.,  Vol.  XLIII,  No.  6,  p.  28. 


210  LAND   DRAINAGE 

falls  apparently  have  always  occurred  and  may  be  ex- 
pected to  continue  to  occur. 

280.  The  relation  of  forests  to  floods.  —  "  The  most 
important  effect  of  forests  on  climate  is  the  economic 
conservation  of  precipitation,  diminishing  the  intensity  of 
floods  by  the  restriction  of  flow-off  [run-off],  and  by  shad- 
ing the  snow  deposited  during  the  winter  from  the  in- 
creasing sun  of  spring  and  early  summer.  .  .  .    Investigation 
in  Germany  and  India  seems  to  indicate  that  there  is  an 
appreciable  increase  in  rainfall  as  a  result  of  reforesta- 
tion." 1    Moore,  however,  does  not  give  figures  and  uses 
the  term  "  seem  to  indicate." 

Unwise  deforestation  is,  in  numerous  cases,  a  serious 
factor  in  augmenting  the  destructiveness  of  floods. 

281.  The  relation  of  drainage  to  floods.  —  It  is  some- 
times charged  that  drainage,  both  open  and  tile,  increases 
the  destructiveness  of  floods.     It  is  possible  that  this 
assertion  might  be  proved  in  a  few  cases.     In  general, 
drainage  should  materially  lessen  the  destructiveness  of 
floods.     Drainage    increases    the    cut-off.     With    good 
methods  of  tillage,  the  cut-off  is  further  increased.     With 
ordinary  rains,  the  complete  and  long  continued  satura- 
tion ofc  the  above-tile  soil  is  prevented ;    so  that  the  net 
cut-off  is  increased  and  the  net  run-off  is  considerably 
controlled  by  the  tile,  and  even  by  the  open  drain.     (See 
paragraphs  77-83.) 

282.  Observations  concerning  rainfall.  —  "  There  are 
few  places  in  the  Western  Division  [of  England]  where 
the  rainfall  is  less  than  35  inches  ...  in  the  low  ground 
about  the  mouth  of  the  Thames  estuary,  and  around  the 
wash,  the  mean  annual  rainfall  is  less  than  25  inches."  2 

1  Willis  L.  Moore,  Cyclopedia  Americana,  Vol.  5. 

2  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  Climate  of  England. 


DRAINAGE   AND   CLIMATE  211 

The  mean  annual  rainfall  at  the  Greenwich  Royal  Ob- 
servatory, according  to  the  records  1815  to  1865  (55 
years),1  was  24.98  inches,  and  if  the  five-year  period  1820 
to  1824  is  omitted,  the  mean  rainfall  was  24.4  inches. 
The  mean  rainfall  at  Greenwich,  1825  to  1869  inclusive 
(45  years),  was  24.05  inches.  It  may  be  objected  that 
England  is  small  in  area  and  subjected,  in  large  measure, 
to  ocean  environment. 

A  study  of  precipitation  records  reveals  the  fact  that 
mean  annual  rainfall  varies  in  large  cycles  and  that 
apparently  the  mean  of  one  cycle  differs  little  from  that 
of  another.  The  ground,  therefore,  for  passing  judgment 
on  diminishing  or  increasing  rainfall  is  insufficient. 

283.  Drainage  and  rainfall.  —  The  weather  records  of 
Great   Britain   do   not   indicate   a   diminishing   rainfall. 
Meteorologists  of  this  country  do  not  admit  an  actually 
diminishing  rainfall  in  any  part  of  the  country,  due  to 
drainage  or  any  other  cause.     The  only  relation,  there- 
fore, that  seems  possible  between  drainage  and  rainfall 
is  that  previously  expressed,  viz. :    the  conservation  and 
utilization  of  the  precipitation  that  comes  in  the  form 
of  rain  or  snow. 

284.  Changing    temperature.  —  Students    of    climate 
assert  that  there  are  no  marked  permanent  changes  occur- 
ring in  the  mean  temperature  of  any  part  of  the  world, 
so  far  as  records  show.     There  may  occur  very  marked 
variations    for    a   year    or   month.     Taken    in   ten-year 
periods  for  a  series  of  years,  the  means  for  these  periods 
will  not  vary  greatly  from  each  other.     The  same  may 
be  said  of  the  temperature  of  any  month  by  periods.     The 
following  table  includes  the  mean  temperatures  for  the 

1  Dempsey  and  Clark,  Drainage  of  Lands,  etc.,  p.  101. 


212 


LAND   DRAINAGE 


months   of  December,   January  and   February  in  New 
York  City  for  thirty-six  years,  1872  to  1907 11 

TABLE  XXII 

MEAN  TEMPERATURE  FOR  THE  MONTHS  OF  DECEMBER,  JANUARY, 
AND  FEBRUARY 


1872  . 

.  .  29.8°  F. 

1890  .  . 

.  40.7°  F. 

1873  . 

.  .  28.1°  F. 

1891  .  . 

.  34.5°  F. 

1874  . 

.  .  34.1°  F. 

1892  .  . 

.  35.0°  F. 

1875  . 

.  .  27.4°  F. 

1893  .  . 

.  28.1°  F. 

1876  . 

.  .  32.9°  F. 

1894  .  . 

.  33.1°  F. 

1877  . 

.  .  29.4°  F. 

1895  .  . 

.  30.7°  F. 

1878  . 

.  .  35.3°  F. 

1896  .  . 

.  31.6°  F. 

1879  . 

.  .  28.9°  F. 

1897  .  ., 

.  31.4°  F. 

1880  . 

.  .  37.8°  F. 

1898  .  . 

.  33.7°  F. 

1881  . 

.  .  27.7°  F. 

1899  .  . 

.  30.7°  F. 

1882  . 

.  .  35.6°  F. 

1900  .  . 

.  33.7°  F. 

1883  . 

.  .  30.5°  F. 

1901  .  . 

.  30.8°  F. 

1884  . 

.  .  31.7°  F. 

1902  .  . 

.  30.7°  F. 

1885  . 

.  .  29.0°  F. 

1903  .  . 

.  32.4°  F. 

1886  . 

.  .  31.0°  F. 

1904  .  . 

.  26.4°  F. 

1887  . 

.  .  31.5°  F. 

t905  .  . 

.  26.8°  F. 

1888  . 

.  .  31.3°  F. 

1906  .  . 

.  35.4°  F. 

1889  . 

.  .  33.9°  F. 

1907 

.  29.8°  F. 

These  means  are  again  averaged  for  ten-year  periods  and 
stand  as  follows : 

1872  to  1881  .     ...    .    V    .    .  31.14°  F. 

1882  to  1891 32.97°  F. 

1892  to  1901 31.88°  F. 

1898  to  1907 31.04°  F. 

It  may  be  argued  that  the  nearness  of  the  ocean  might 
equalize  the  temperature  of  New  York  City.  The  follow- 
ing table  is  even  more  interesting  than  the  one  above : 

1  Walter  H.  F.  Grau.    Harper's  Weekly,  Vol.  52,  No.  2713, 

(1908),  p.  8. 


DRAINAGE   AND   CLIMATE 


213 


TABLE  XXIII 

MEAN  TEMPERATURE  FOR  THE  MONTHS  OF  DECEMBER,  JANUARY, 
AND  FEBRUARY 


1854-5  TO  78-9 

79-80  TO  1903-4 

Cincinnati       

34.8 

34 

St   Louis 

33  5 

33  5 

Cleveland  

28.2 

28.2 

New  Orleans  

55.2 

55.5 

Chicago                      

250 

25.5 

New  Bedford,  Mass  
Washington,  D.C  
Charleston       

29.1 
34.2 
51.1 

29.5 
34.9 
51.31 

285.  Changes  in  frost  dates.  —  It  is  said  by  old  resi- 
dents of  southern  and  central  Michigan  and  other 
originally  forested  parts  of  our  country,  that  with  the 
cutting  away  of  the  timber  and  draining  of  the  lands  of 
these  regions,  the  periods  between  late  spring  and  early 
fall  frosts  have  been  greatly  lengthened,  so  that  certain 
crops  can  now  be  grown  that  could  not  be  grown  in  pioneer 
days.  Records  are  not  easily  found  to  verify  these  claims. 
The  claims,  however,  do  not  seem  unreasonable.  Very 
definite  relation  exists  between  air  drainage  and  the 
occurrence  of  frosts.  The  practical  orchard ist  recognizes 
the  great  importance  of  air  drainage  in  the  selection  of 
an  orchard  site.  After  the  first  light  frost,  the  affected 
areas  are  found  to  occupy  the  depressions  and  ravines  of 
the  field,  and  are  as  clearly  defined  as  would  be  the  shores 

1  Walter  H.  F.  Grau,  Harper's  Weekly,  Vol.  152,  No.  2713,  p.  8. 

Data  procured  in  part  from  "reliable  private  records,"  and 
from  those  of  voluntary  observers  cooperating  with  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution. 


214  LAND   DRAINAGE 

of  ponds  in  the  depressions  and  streams  in  the  ravines,  and 
the  more  severe  the  frost,  the  higher  the  shore  line,  all 
of  which  shows  that  32-degree  air  gravitates  and  displaces 
air  of  higher  temperature. 

286.  Wooded  areas  and  frosts.  —  Obstructions  to  the 
ready  gravitational  movements  of  air  increase  the  tend- 
ency  to   frosts,   whether   these    are   ridges    of   land    or 
stretches  of  wood.     In  cultivated  areas,  surrounded  by 
woods,  frosts  often  occur  that  probably  would  not  if  the 
timber  on  the  lower  side  were  removed. 

287.  Drainage     and     surface     temperature.  —  While 
drainage  might  not  be  expected   appreciably  to   affect 
the  mean  temperature  of  a  region,  it  undoubtedly  does 
very  materially   affect  the  temperature   of  the   surface 
soil,  by  greatly  reducing  the  loss  of  heat  by  evaporation, 
and  by  lowering  its  specific  heat ;   and  it  is  not  unreason- 
able to  conclude  that  this  all  might  result  in  lengthening 
the  period  between  late  spring  and  early  fall  frosts.     (See 
paragraphs  56  and  57.) 


CHAPTER  XIV 
DRAINAGE  LAWS 

NUMEROUS  questions  arise  concerning  the  rights  of  in- 
dividuals who  desire  to  drain  their  lands.  An  attempt 
will  be  made  in  the  following  pages  to  state,  briefly, 
certain  facts  in  law  concerning  the  rights  of  property 
owners  to  drain  their  lands,  and  the  methods  of  procedure 
under  certain  conditions. 

288.  The  right  of  the  individual  to  drain  his  property 
when  it  lies  adjacent  to  a  natural  water  course.  —  The 
law  of  Iowa  reads :  "  Owners  of  land  may  drain  the 
same  in  the  general  course  of  natural  drainage,  by  con- 
structing open  or  covered  drains,  discharging  the  same 
into  any  natural  water  course,  or  into  any  natural 
depression,  whereby  the  water  will  be  carried  into  some 
natural  water  course,  and  when  such  drainage  is  wholly 
upon  the  owner's  land  he  shall  not  be  liable  in  damages 
therefor  to  any  person  or  persons,  or  corporation." 
The  law  of  Illinois  is  identical,  except  that  it  specifies 
also  that  the  drainage  may  be  discharged  "  into  some 
drain  on  the  public  highway  with  the  consent  of  the 
Commissioners  thereto." 

The  right  of  an  owner  of  land  to  discharge  the  drainage 
waters  from  his  farm  into  natural  water  courses,  after 
the  manner  indicated  in  the  above  quoted  law,  would 
probably  be  sustained  in  most  states,  if  not  in  every  state. 
It  is  probable,  however,  that  if  any  owner  of  land  should 

215 


216  LAND   DRAINAGE 

discharge  the  sewage  of  his  home  or  barns  into  his  drain 
system,  the  discharge  of  such  drainage  into  a  natural 
waterway  could  be  prevented  by  due  process  of  law. 

289.  The  right  of  an  individual  to  drain  his  property 
when  not  lying  adjacent  to  natural  water  courses.  —  In 
some  states  at  least,  the  law  gives  the  owner  of  land  the 
right,  when  necessary,  to  drain  across  the  property  of 
another  party  in  order  to  reach  a  natural  water  course  or 
drain.  Usually  this  is  done  by  the  use  of  tile  drains.  It  is 
frequently  possible  for  the  party  having  land  to  drain, 
and  the  party  through  whose  land  the  drainage  must  be 
conducted,  to  arrive  at  an  agreement  by  which  the  work 
may  be  done.  It  would  be  a  wiser  pecaution,  always, 
to  have  such  an  agreement  in  writing  and  properly  wit- 
nessed. It  should  be  properly  signed  at  least. 

When  such  an  agreement  cannot  be  entered  into,  or  the 
party  across  whose  land  the  drainage  must  be  conducted 
objects,  the  law  usually  provides  a  procedure  that  must 
be  followed.  The  procedure  must  be  before  a  court  or  an 
arbitration  commission.  This  court  or  commission  must 
decide  first,  whether  it  is  necessary  for  the  party  desiring 
to  drain  his  land,  to  cross  his  neighbor's  land  for  an  outlet 
and  if  they  decide  affirmatively,  they  must  determine, 
directly  or  otherwise  (through  an  employed  engineer, 
"  viewers/'  or  other),  the  course  the  drain  shall  take  and 
the  damages  the  neighbor  shall  receive  for  the  crossing  of 
his  land.  The  law  gives  to  the  land-owner  the  right, 
directly  or  through  a  contractor,  to  construct  the  drain, 
and  at  seasonable  times  thereafter  to  enter  the  neighbor's 
premises  to  inspect  and  repair  the  drain. 

There  are  two  provisions  in  the  law  of  New  York  for 
the  drainage  of  wet  land  for  agricultural  purposes,  as 
explained  by  Fippin  in  the  Cornell  Reading  Course. 


DRAINAGE   LAWS  217 

"  The  first  of  these  is  under  the  Agricultural  Drainage 
Statute,  Consolidated  Laws  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
chapter  15,  as  amended  by  chapter  624  of  the  Laws  of 
1910.  The  second  provision  is  contained  in  the  act  estab- 
lishing the  State  Conservation  Commission,  Consoli- 
dated Laws,  chapter  65,  article  8.  The  general  procedure 
is  the  same  under  both  acts,  and  the  cost  of  securing  the 
right  of  way  and  constructing  the  drainage  ditch  is  assessed 
against  the  land  benefited.  These  laws  usually  deal  with 
the  large  outlet  canals,  but  are  applicable  in  securing  an 
outlet  for  the  drain  from  a  single  farm. 

"  In  a  general  way,  advantage  may  be  taken  of  the  natural 
fall  of  the  land  in  establishing  an  outlet  for  a  drainage 
system,  and  adjoining  property  owners  must  provide 
for  the  drainage  water  so  discharged  as  surface  water.  As 
yet  no  such  obligation  is  recognized  to  apply  to  water 
collected  and  discharged  by  tile  drains  except  as  it  reaches 
the  adjoining  property  as  surface  water  in  a  natural  drain- 
age course.  There  are  very  few  cases  of  drainage  that  are 
not  provided  for  in  the  existing  drainage  laws  of  the 
State." 

290.  The  right  of  a  group  of  individuals  to  drain.  — 
When  a  tract  of  land,  embracing  the  holdings  of  more  than 
one  person,  requires  drainage,  and  when  few,  if  any,  of 
the  holdings  lie  adjacent  to  a  natural  water-way  or  drainage 
course,  and  where  the  topography  is  such  that  they  must, 
or  may,  discharge  their  drainage  waters  along  a  common 
course,  this  tract  may  be  organized  into  a  drainage  dis- 
trict. The  purposes  of  such  a  procedure  include 
economy,  efficiency  and  justice,  both  in  construction  and 
up-keep.  Several  things  must  be  considered.  The  size 
of  the  mains  or  sub-mains  increases  as  they  approach  the 
outlet  for  the  district.  In  some,  probably  most,  cases 


218  LAND   DRAINAGE 

the  mains  become  open  ditches,  often  of  considerable 
size,  and  the  expense  of  building  or  installing  may  be 
great,  both  because  of  their  size  and  depth.  Sometimes 
a  drain  must  cross  a  farm  that  will  derive  little,  if  any, 
benefit  from  the  system,  or  even  if  it  should  derive  bene- 
fit, the  right  of  way  for  the  ditch,  if  it  is  an  open  ditch, 
may  require  a  considerable  acreage  of  land,  or  may  cross 
the  farm  in  such  a  way  as  to  interfere  with  the  operations 
of  the  farm  and  in  this,  and  other  ways,  result  in  lessening 
the  value  of  the  farm.  Some  of  the  land-owners  may  ob- 
ject to  the  expense  to  the  district;  some  may  feel  they 
would  derive  no  benefit  from  such  a  system  of  drains. 

The  laws  governing  the  procedure  in  establishing  and 
putting  into  operation  a  drainage  district  are  drawn  to 
equalize  cost  and  assure  justice  to  all  concerned.  Ex- 
cepting in  minor  details,  the  method  of  procedure  is  very 
similar  in  the  several  states,  and  is  about  as  follows : 

291.  A  petition  must  be  prepared.  —  A  petition  must 
be  signed,  in  most  states,  by  a  majority  of  the  land-owners 
of  the  proposed  district.  In  Illinois  the  petition  must  be 
signed  by  at  least  one-half  of  the  land-owners  who  to- 
gether must  own  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  land  of  the 
district,  or  by  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  land-owners  who 
together  must  own  at  least  one-half  of  the  land  of  the 
district.  In  Iowa  the  petition  may  be  signed  "  by  one  or 
more  land-owners  whose  lands  will  be  affected  by  or  as- 
sessed for  "  ;  in  Minnesota  by  "  one  or  more  of  the  land- 
owners whose  lands  will  be  liable  to  be  affected  by  or 
assessed  for  the  construction  of  the  same,"  or  "by  the 
supervisors  of  any  township  "  and  so  on.  In  Michigan 
the  number  of  petitioners  must  equal  one-third  of  the 
number  of  persons  owning  land  through  which  the  pro- 
posed drain  will  pass,  and  they  must  be  freeholders  liable 


DRAINAGE   LAWS  219 

to  assessment  if  the  drain  is  built.  Usually  certain  de- 
tails must  be  observed.  In  some  cases  the  petition  must 
be  accompanied  by,  or  must  contain,  a  description  of  the 
lands  to  be  affected  or  benefited  by  such  a  drainage  sys- 
tem. In  some  cases  it  must  declare  that  it  is  the  opinion 
of  the  petitioners  that  the  enterprise  is  necessary  to  the 
public  good,  or  possibly  the  public  health.  In  some  cases 
it  must  be  accompanied  by  a  guaranty  that  the  prelimi- 
nary expense  will  be  met  by  the  petitioners,  if,  after  due 
examination,  the  petition  is  denied.  In  Iowa  this  petition 
must  be  presented  to  the  county  board  through  the  county 
auditor ;  in  Minnesota,  to  the  county  board  or  a  district 
judge,  depending  upon  whether  the  drainage  district  lies 
within  one  county  or  in  two  or  more  counties.  In 
Illinois,  the  petition  is  presented  through  the  town  clerk 
to  the  highway  commissioner  of  the  town  or  towns  in 
which  the  proposed  district  lies.  This  in  counties  under 
township  organization.  In  counties  not  under  township 
organization  the  petition  must  be  presented  to  the  clerk 
of  the  probate  court.  In  Michigan  the  petition  must  be 
presented  to  the  county  drain  commissioner. 

292.  Action  upon  the  petition.  —  The  law  usually 
makes  provision  for  the  calling  of  a  meeting  which  may 
be  followed  by  others,  called  or  adjourned.  Lawful 
notice  of  such  meeting  must  be  posted,  published,  or 
mailed,  with  a  view  to  having  all  parties  directly  interested 
informed  of  the  time  and  place  of  the  meeting.  At  the 
first  meeting  the  legality  of  the  petition  must  be  estab- 
lished. Usually,  if  there  are  any  errors,  provision  is 
found  in  the  law  for  their  rectification.  In  some  states, 
any  person  who  has  not  already  signed  the  petition  may 
do  so,  but  no  person  who  has  signed  the  petition  may 
withdraw  his  name,  unless  he  can  show  that  he  signed  it 


220  LAND   DRAINAGE 

through  misunderstanding,  or  because  of  some  misrep- 
resentation. If  fraud  is  discovered  in  the  petition,  or  if 
it  has  not  been  prepared  in  accordance  with  law,  it  must 
be  dismissed  or  denied. 

293.  Objections  must  be  heard.  —  In  all  cases,  objec- 
tions to  the  proposed  system  must  be  heard  and  con- 
sidered.    Usually  these  objections  may  be  offered  only 
by  parties  whose  lands  will  be  assessed  in  case  the  system 
is  constructed  or  who  feel  that  the  enterprise  will  work 
injury  to  their  lands.     In  Illinois,  and  probably  other 
states,  no  person  who  has  signed  a  petition  may  offer 
objections.     In  Illinois,  the  commissioners  may  administer 
oath  and  listen  to  controversial  evidence. 

294.  The  proposed  district  must  be   examined.  —  If 
the  body  or  person  to  whom  the   petition  is   presented 
favors  the  petition,  provision  is  made  for  the  examination 
of  the  proposed  district.     Sometimes  this  is  done  directly 
by  the  petitioned  body  and  sometimes  by  an  engineer 
or  commission  appointed  for  the  purpose.     In  this  ex- 
amination, changes  may  be  made  in  the  outline  of  the 
district.     Lands  may  be  included  not  indicated  in  the 
petition,  and  in  certain  instances,  lands  may  be  excluded 
that  were  indicated  in  the  petition.     The  proposed  course 
of  the  mains  should  be  examined  into  and  may  be  changed. 
Usually  a  map  of  the  district  and  an  estimate  of  costs 
are  prepared;  all  of  which  must  be  submitted  to  the 
deciding  body  or  person. 

295.  The    organization    of   the    district   must   be  au- 
thorized. —  With  the  results  of  the  examination,  map  of 
the  district,  and  estimates  of  cost  at  hand,  if  it  appears 
that  the  expense  of  organizing  the  district  and  construct- 
ing the  system  of  drainage  exceed  the  benefits  to  be  de- 
rived therefrom,  the  petition  should  be  finally  denied.     If 


DRAINAGE   LAWS  221 

the  benefits  to  be  derived  exceed  such  expenses,  the  peti- 
tion should  be  granted,  and  the  legal  organization  of  the 
district  authorized,  and  all  parties  whose  property  will 
be  taxed  in  the  execution  of  the  work  must  be  legally 
notified. 

296.  The  work  of  construction.  —  The  execution  of 
the  work  of  construction  must  be  done  under  authority. 
It  includes  the  perfecting  of  the  plans  for  the  system  of 
drainage;  the  construction  work,  directly  or  through 
contractors;  the  levying  and  collecting  of  taxes  to  pay 
for  the  same ;  sometimes  the  borrowing  of  money  and  the 
issuing  of  bonds  for  the  same;  the  auditing  and  the  au- 
thorizing of  the  paying  of  bills,  or  certain  parts  of  them  as 
they  become  due.  After  the  work  is  completed,  the  re- 
pair and  up-keep  of  the  system  must  be  looked  after.  A 
district  drainage  enterprise  is  sometimes  both  extensive 
and  expensive,  so  that  it  is  impractical  to  meet  the  ex- 
pense by  a  single  tax  levy.  In  such  a  case,  the  payment 
may  extend  over  a  number  of  years,  and  since  the  work 
must  be  paid  for  as  rapidly  as  completed,  it  becomes 
necessary,  in  such  cases,  to  borrow  money  and  issue  a 
bond,  or  bonds,  for  the  payment  of  the  same.  In  Michigan 
all  of  this  work  is  looked  after  by  the  county  drain  com- 
missioner. In  Illinois  three  drainage  commissioners  are 
elected  for  this  purpose.  In  Iowa,  the  county  board  of 
supervisors  directs  the  finances  and  employs  an  engineer  to 
supervise  the  work.  In  Minnesota  the  county  board  directs 
the  finances,  while  the  construction  is  supervised  by  an 
engineer  appointed  by  the  county  board  or  district  judge. 
The  later  supervision  and  up-keep  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
county  drain  commissioner  in  Michigan;  of  a  board  of 
three  commissioners  elected  by  the  district  in  Illinois ;  by 
the  board  of  county  supervisors  in  Minnesota. 


222  LAND   DRAINAGE 

297.  Grievances.  —  The  law  usually  makes  abundant 
provision   for   the   satisfying   of   aggrieved   parties.     An 
owner  of  land  who  thinks  that  he  is  not  offered  proper 
compensation  for  right  of  way  privileges,  or  other  damages 
resulting  from  the  passage  of  a  drain  through  his  property, 
or  who  may  think  that  the  taxes  apportioned  to  him  are 
unjust,  will  find  provision  in  the  law  by  which  he  may 
appeal  from  the  first  decisions.     In  some  cases  appraisers 
are  appointed  to  pass  upon  the  question  of  damages.     In 
some  cases  provision  is  made  for  taking  the  matter  before 
a  court  and  jury.     When  assessment  and  apportionment 
of  taxes  are  questioned,  the  matter  is  sometimes  decided 
by  a  board  of  review.     It  is  probably  usually  true  that 
when,  in  cases  of  appeals  of  this  kind,  the  damages  are 
not  increased,  or  the  taxes  are  not  reduced,  the  party  so 
appealing  must  stand  the  expense  resulting  therefrom. 
It  is  true  in  some  states  at  least. 

298.  Time  a  factor.  —  Time  seems  always  to  be  rec- 
ognized as  an  important  factor  in  the  proceedings  leading 
to  the  establishment  of  a  drainage  district.     The  law 
prescribes  a  minimum,  and  frequently  a  maximum  period 
of  time  that  must  elapse  in  the  calling  of  meetings,  in  the 
sending  or  publishing  of  notices,  in  the  execution  of  work 
of  committees,  commissions,  or  engineers,  in  the  filing 
of  claims  for  damages,  and  in  the  time  that  must  elapse 
from  the  time  of  the  dismissal  of  one  petition  until  an- 
other petition  for  a  similar  enterprise  may  be  filed. 

299.  Records.  —  The  law   recognizes   the   importance 
of  accurate  and  complete  records.     It  is  probably  true 
that  in  all  cases,  petitions,  with  all  supplemental  informa- 
tion and  data  required  with  them,  must  be  filed  or  re- 
corded.    The  same  thing  is  true  of  the  minutes  of  meetings, 
hearings,  protests,  claims,  estimates,  maps,  and  the  like. 


DRAINAGE  LAWS  223 

300.  Mutual   agreements.  —  In   some,  if   not  in   all, 
states  the  law  gives  to  any  group  of  freeholders,  desiring 
to  organize  a  drainage  district,  the  right  to  enter  into  a 
mutual  agreement  for  the  organization  of  such,  and  for 
the  laying  out  of  the  system  and  the  execution  of  the  work 
and  payment  therefore.     It  is  probably  true  that  such 
an  agreement  must  in  all  cases  become  a  matter  of  record, 
and  should  be  drawn  with  care,  and  be  specific  in  the  points 
of  agreement.     The  work  of  construction  in  such  cases  is 
usually,  if  not  always,  required  to  be  done  under  the  same 
authority  as  in  cases  in  which  petitions  are  presented  and 
the  work  carried  out  in  the  ordinary  way.     In  the  case 
of  mutual  agreement,  however,   time  and  expense  and 
annoyance  are  saved. 

301.  Unlawful  acts ;  penalties.  —  Certain  acts  relating 
to  draining  and  drainage  are  unlawful  in  most  states, 
and  are  classed  as  misdemeanors.     In  Minnesota  it  is 
not  lawful : 

To  willfully  or  negligently  obstruct  or  injure  any  work 
constructed  under  the  provision  of  certain  drainage 
laws; 

To  allow  such  work  to  be  injured  or  obstructed  by  live- 
stock ; 

To  divert  water  from  its  proper  channel; 

To  change  location  of,  or  markings  on,  stakes  set  and 
marked  by  the  engineer  in  charge  of  any  drainage  work 
(unless  authorized  by  said  engineer  to  make  such  changes) ; 

To  dig  or  construct,  or  cause  to  be  dug  or  constructed, 
drains  emptying  their  water  into  county  or  district  drains, 
without  having  first  obtained  proper  permission  to  do  so. 

To  attempt  to  prevent  or  interfere  with  the  entrance 
upon  any  tract  of  land  by  the  viewers,  county  com- 
missioners, and  the  engineers  to  do  any  act  necessary 


224  LAND   DRAINAGE 

in  connection  with  their  duties  in  any  piece  of  drainage 
work. 

Persons  committing  any  of  these  acts  may  be  found 
guilty  of  a  misdemeanor  and  may  also  be  held  liable  for 
losses  that  may  result  to  any  individual  or  corporation  from 
such  act,  even  to  treble  damages. 

An  officer  who  neglects,  or  fails,  or  refuses  to  perform 
duties  imposed  upon  him  by  law,  may  be  guilty  of  mis- 
demeanor, and  may  be  liable  to  all  persons  or  corporations 
by  such  act,  even  in  treble  damages. 


APPENDIX 
LABORATORY  PRACTICE 

THE  following  eighteen  experiments,  some  of  which  have 
more  than  one  part,  are  prepared  to  demonstrate  some  of 
the  more  important  facts  concerning  soil  conditions  and 
drainage,  and  these  are  likely  to  suggest  others  to  both 
teacher  and  student.  They  have  been  used,  slightly 
modified  in  some  cases,  by  the  writer. 

EXPERIMENT  1 

Distribution  of  Capillary  Water  in  Columns  of  Soil 

(A)  The  material  required  for  this  experiment  consists 
of: 

1.  A  number  of  threaded  6-inch  sections  of    IJ-inch 
brass  tubing  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  91. 

2.  Three-inch  circular  filter  paper. 

3.  Small  pieces  of  strong  cheese-cloth,  4  inches  square. 

4.  Light  strong  cord. 

5.  A    small    strong    granite-ware    pan    with    creased 
bottom.      Instead  of  a  granite-ware  pan,  a  small  block  of 
some  non-absorptive  material  may  be  used. 

6.  A  f-inch  round  soft-wood  rod,  10  or  12  inches  long. 

(B)  To  perform  the  experiment : 

1.    Carefully  vaseline  the  base  of  the  threads  of  twelve 
of  the  threaded  sections  of  tubing  and  screw  them  to- 
Q  225 


226  APPENDIX 

gether.  This  will  make  a  cylinder  6  feet  long.  It  may 
be  desirable  in  some  cases  to  use  fourteen  or  even  eighteen 
sections. 

2.  Place  a  piece  of  filter  paper  over  the  lower  end  of 
the  cylinder,  and  over  this  place  a  piece  of  cheese-cloth, 
bringing  the  edges  of  both  filter  paper  and  cheese-cloth 
up  over  the  cylinder,  and  strongly  tie  in  place. 


FIG.  91.  —  Threaded  section  of  brass  tubing  used  in  studying  distribu- 
tion of  water  in  soil  columns. 

3.  With  colored   pencil,  number  the  sections  of  the 
cylinder  1,  2,  3,  and  so  on  from  top  to  bottom. 

4.  Fasten  the  cylinder  in  an  upright  position  with  the 
bottom  resting  upon  a  pan,  or  other  support. 

5.  Fill  the  cylinder  with  graded  fine  sand  and  settle  by 
tapping  until  settling  ceases.     For  uniformity  of  filling, 
an  excellent  method  is  td  introduce  the  end  of  a  large 
funnel  into  the  top  of  the  cylinder  and  introduce  the  sand 
into  the  cylinder  through  the  funnel,  pouring  the  sand 
into  the  funnel  at  such  a  rate  that  the  funnel  will  not 
become  empty  at  any  time  during  the  filling.     If  the 
funnel  can  be  held,  during  this  process,  so  that  the  lower 
end  of  the  stem  shall  be  just  below  the  top  of  the  cylinder, 
the  filling  of  the  upper  section  will  be  more  nearly  uniform 
with  that  of  the  lower  sections.     To  produce  the  settling, 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE  227 

tap  the  walls  of  the  cylinder  with  the  wood  rod,  distributing 
the  tapping  over  the  whole  length  of  the  cylinder.  The 
tapping  should  not  be  severe  enough  to  batter  the  walls  of 
the  cylinder. 

6.  After  the  settling  has  ceased,  carefully  brush  the 
threading  of  the  top  section,  carefully  vaseline  at  the  base, 
and  add  two  empty  sections. 

7.  Introduce  water  into  the  top  of  cylinder,  being  care- 
ful to  keep  the  upper  sections  nearly  full  of  water,  until 
water  begins  to  percolate  from  the  bottom. 

8.  Place  a  piece  of  cheese-cloth,  or  some  other  covering, 
over  the  top  of  the  cylinder  and  allow  to  stand  48  hours. 

9.  At  the  end  of  48  hours,  carefully  and  quickly  separate 
the  sections  by  unscrewing ;   carefully  wipe  vaseline  from 
joints. 

10.  Place  each  section  in  a  dry  tared  tray,  numbered  to 
correspond  with  the  number  of  the  section. 

11.  Carefully  weigh  each  tray  with  contents  and  care- 
fully record  weight. 

12.  Dry  to   constant   weight   and   weigh   and   record 
weight  of  each  tray  and  contents. 

13.  Remove,  carefully  wipe  and  weigh  each  section,  and 
carefully  record  its  weight. 

14.  From  the  data  thus  obtained  determine : 

(a)  The  weight  of  dry  soil  in  each  section. 

(b)  The  weight  of  water  contained  in  each  section  before 
drying. 

(c)  The  percentage  of  water  in  each  section.      (The  per- 
centage is  obtained  by  dividing  the  water  lost  in  drying 
by  the  dry  weight  of  soil.) 

15.  Plot  curve  of  distribution  of  water  in  the  column 
of  soil  in  the  cylinder  at  the  end  of  48  hours  after  satura- 
tion. 


228  APPENDIX 


EXPERIMENT  2 

The  Influence  of  Subsoil  on  the  Distribution  of  Capillary 
Water  in  the  Overlying  Soil 

Conduct  the  experiment  in  every  particular  as  in  Ex- 
periment 1,  already  explained,  except  that  in  paragraph  4 
of  directions,  the  cylinder  be  placed  .on  the  surface  of  a 
bucket  full  of  dry  sand  of  the  same  kind  and  grade  as  that 
used  in  the  cylinder. 

EXPERIMENT  3 

The   Influence  of  a   Heavy   Subsoil   on   the   Distribution 
of  Capillary  Water  in  the  Overlying  Soil 

Conduct  the  experiment  in  every  particular  as  in  Ex- 
periment 1,  except  that  in  paragraph  4  of  directions,  the 
cylinder  be  placed  upon  heavy  clay.  (If  the  cylinder 
can  be  placed  upon  bare  ground,  of  a  nature  heavier  than 
the  sand  in  the  cylinder,  preferably  heavy  clay,  the  same 
or  similar  results  should  be  obtained.  In  this  case  the 
filter  paper  may  be  dispensed  with.) 


EXPERIMENT  4 

The  Influence  of  a  Layer  of  Gravel  or  Coarse  Material  on 
the  Distribution  of  Capillary  Water  in  the  Overlying  Soil 

Conduct  the  experiment  in  every  particular  as  in 
Experiment  1,  except  that  the  fourth  section  from  the 
bottom  be  filled  with  very  fine  gravel,  or  very  coarse 
sand,  and  that  the  gravel  or  sand  be  moistened  before  it  is 
introduced.  In  this  experiment,  the  lower  four  sections 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE  229 

should  be  put  together,  the  filter  paper  and  cheese-cloth 
carefully  tied  in  place,  and  the  lower  three  sections  filled 
with  sand  and  settled,  adding  enough  sand  so  that  the 
settled  sand  shall  stand  slightly  above  the  joint  between 
sections  3  and  4  from  the  bottom.  Then  the  fourth  section 
should  be  filled  with  the  gravel  or  coarse  sand.  After  this, 
the  remaining  sections  which  have  been  properly  put 
together  should  be  screwed  on  to  section  4  from  bottom, 
first  being  careful  to  clean  and  vaseline  the  upper  threads 
of  section  4. 

EXPERIMENT  5 
Surface  Tension 

(A)  The  materials  needed  for  this  experiment  are  : 

1.  A  small  dish  of  fine  sand. 

2.  A  shallow  dish  or  watch  glass. 

3.  A  beaker  of  water. 

4.  A  heated  clean  iron  surface. 

(B)  To  perform  the  experiment : 

1.  Place  a  small  quantity  of  water  in  the  dish  or  watch 
glass. 

2.  Slowly  pour  fine  sand  into  the  water  in  the  dish 
until  more  sand  has  been  poured  in  than  the  water  will 
moisten. 

3.  After  thirty  seconds  invert  the  dish  to  permit  the 
unmoistened  portion  of  the  sand  to  fall  away. 

Observe :    The  dish  may  be  held  in  any  position  and 
the  moistened  sand  will  not  fall  away  from  it.     Why  ? 

4.  Set  the  dish  in  position  and  with  a  sharpened  pencil 
or  rod  break  the  sand  into  small  masses  of  various  sizes. 
It  will  be  found  that  masses  of  considerable  size  may  be 
lifted  upon  the  point  of  the  pencil  or  rod  without  breaking. 


230  APPENDIX 

Why  ?    Draw  a  sketch  to  illustrate  your  idea  of  how  the 
particles  of  sand  are  held  together.     (See  Fig.  17.) 

5.  Place  one  of  the  masses  of  wet  sand  upon  the  hot 
iron  surface  and  note  its  behavior.     After  a  few  seconds 
the  mass  begins  to  collapse.     Sometimes  it  collapses  a 
part  at  a  time.     Sometimes  the   whole   mass   suddenly 
collapses.     In  either  case  the  grains  of  sand  fall  apart  and 
scatter  about  over  the  heated  surface.     Why? 

6.  Lift  a  mass  of  the  wet  sand  upon  the  point  of  a 
pencil  and  carefully  bring  it  over  a  vessel  full  of  water ; 
then  slowly  and  carefully  lower  the  mass  till  some  point  of 
it  comes  just  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  water,  and 
note  what  happens.     Suddenly  a  portion  of  the  mass,  or 
possibly  all  of  the  mass,  breaks  away  from  the  point  of  the 
pencil  and  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  glass,  but  it  will 
be  observed  that  within  the  body  of  water  the  grains 
of  sand  become  independent  of  each  other  and  spread  apart 
as  they  settle. 

Why  do  they  break  away  from  the  pencil  ? 
Why  do  they  spread  apart  as  they  settle  ? 

EXPERIMENT  6 

Surface  Tension 

The  experiment  (5)  may  be  repeated  using  loam  and  fine 
clay.  If  fine  clay  and  frequently  if  fine  loam  be  used, 
the  behavior  of  the  moist  mass,  when  placed  upon  the 
hot  surface,  will  be  different  from  that  of  the  mass  of  fine 
sand,  and  will  illustrate  another  very  important  action  of 
the  capillary  film. 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE  231 

EXPERIMENT  7 

Surface  Tension 

(A)  1.   Introduce  a  small  amount  of  water  (one  or  two 
grams)  into  a  watch  glass  or  other  shallow  dish. 

2.  Pour  sand  steadily,  and  in  a  small  stream  at  one 
point,  into  the  water  until  the  water  is  completely  taken 
up  by  sand.     Pour  in  an  excess  of  dry  sand.     The  sand 
mass  will  be  found  to  take  a  form  similar  to  that  shown 
in  Fig.  18  of  the  text. 

3.  After  15  seconds,  the  dish  should  be  slowly  inverted 
to  permit  the  dry  sand  to  fall  away  from  the  surface  of 
the  mass  in  the  dish. 

4.  The  dish  may  now  be  held  in  any  position  and  the 
pyramid  of  moist  sand  will  usually  not  break.     Why  ? 

5.  Draw  a  diagram  or  sketch  to  show  the  manner  in 
which,  as  you  understand  it,  the  pyramid  is  kept  in  posi- 
tion. 

(B)  1.    Place  the  dish  in  position  on  a  stand  or  table. 

2.  Pour  a  very  small  amount  of  water  down  the  inner 
surface  of  the  dish.  The  pyramid  of  moist  sand  will 
collapse.  Why  ? 

EXPERIMENT  8 

Specific  Heat  of  Wet  and  Dry  Soils 

Where  the  apparatus  is  available,  determine  the  specific 
heat  of  wet  and  dry  soils,  using  Hosier  and  Gustafson's 
method  as  described  on  page  40  of  their  Soil  Physics 
Laboratory  Manual,  or  McCall's,  as  described  in  his 
Physical  Properties  of  Soil,  p.  74. 


232  APPENDIX 

EXPERIMENT  9 

Effect  of  Evaporation  on  Soil  Temperature 

1.  Fill  to  within  a  quarter  inch  of  the  top,  three  1 -quart 
granite-ware  pans  (or  any  three  vessels  of  equal  size  and 
shape),  with  any  soil  of  the  same  kind,  preferably  a  sandy 
loam  for  this  experiment. 

2.  With  wax  pencil  or  otherwise  mark  the  pans  1,  2, 
and  3. 

3.  Place  a  small  piece  of  filter  paper  upon  the  surface 
of  the  soil  in  pans  2  and  3. 

4.  Upon  the  filter  paper  in  pan  2,  pour  an  amount  of 
water  equal  to  20  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  soil  in  the 
pan. 

5.  Upon  the  filter  paper  in  pan  3,  pour  water  until  the 
soil  is  slightly  more  than  saturated. 

6.  Place  a  cover  on  each  of  the  three  pans  and  set  the 
pans  together,  either  in  the  laboratory  or  out-of-doors, 
where  the  temperature  will  remain  fairly  constant,  and 
permit  to  stand  till  the  following  morning. 

7.  Remove  covers  and  determine  the  temperature  of 
the  soil  in  each  pan  by  inserting  a  thermometer  bulb 
just  below  the  surface,  and  record  temperature  in  each 
case.     It  is  desirable  to  have  a  thermometer  for  each  pan 
and  to  allow  it  to  remain  in  position  during  the  period  of 
the  experiment. 

8.  At  the  end  of  each  hour,  for  three  to  six  hours  if 
possible,  again  determine  the  temperature  of  the  soil  in 
the  same  manner  and  record  temperature. 

9.  Plot  curves  of  temperature  for  the  three  pans. 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE  233 

EXPERIMENT  10 
Effect   of  Drainage   on   Germination 

1.  Have  prepared  a  galvanized  iron  pan  1  foot  by  2  feet 
by  6  inches  deep. 

2.  Have  prepared  a  frame  of  galvanized  iron  1  foot  by 
2  feet  by  6  inches  deep.     This  frame  will  be,  in  construc- 
tion, in  every  way  like  the  pan  described  in  1,  except  that 
it  has  no  bottom. 

3.  Preferably  out-of-doors,  excavate  in  a  loam  soil  two 
openings  of  sufficient  size,  one  to  receive  the  pan  and  the 
other  the  frame,  so  that  the  upper  edge  of  pan  and  frame 
lie  just  flush  with  the  surface  of  the  ground,  being  care- 
ful also  to  have  selected  a  spot  so  that  when  the  pan  and 
frame  are  placed,  their  tops  shall  stand  absolutely  level. 

4.  Thoroughly  mellow  and  mix  the  soil  that  was  re- 
moved in  excavating,  and  introduce  a  sufficient  amount 
into  the  pan  and  frame  to  well  fill,  packing  lightly  in  the 
filling. 

5.  After  pan  and  frame  have  been  filled  a  few  hours, 
determine  the  temperature  of  the  surface  soil  of  each  by 
inserting  the  bulb  of  a  thermometer  to  the  same  depth 
below  the  surface  —  say  f  of  an  inch.     Record  tempera- 
ture. 

6.  Carefully  measure  or  weigh  into  the  pan  a  sufficient 
amount  of  water  thoroughly  to  saturate  the  soil  and  record 
the  amount  of  water  so  introduced. 

7.  Introduce  slowly  and  uniformly  into  the  soil  in  the 
frame  an  amount  of  water  equal  to  that  introduced  into 
the  soil  in  the  pan. 

8.  Lay  off  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  pan  and  frame  into 
six-inch  squares. 


234  APPENDIX 

9.  (a)  In  the  four  squares  on  one  side  of  the  pan  plant 
seeds  as  follows  :    In  the  first,  6  good  grains  of  wheat ;  in 
the  second,  6  good  grains  of  oats ;  in  the  third,  4  good  beans ; 
and  in  the  fourth,  4  grains  of  corn.     In  the  other  four  plant 
seeds  as  follows  :  In  the  first,  which  will  be  adjacent  to  the 
wheat,  plant  4  grains  of  corn ;  in  the  next,  which  will  be 
adjacent  to  the  oats,  plant  4  beans;    in  the  next,  which 
will  be  adjacent  to  the  beans,  plant  6  grains  of  oats ;  and 
in  the  next,  which  will  be  adjacent  to  the  corn,  plant  6 
grains  of  wheat.     In  planting  the  seeds  place  the  wheat 
and  oats  |  inch  below  the  surface ;   place  the  corn  and 
beans  1  inch  below  the  surface. 

(6)  Plant  the  squares  in  the  frame  to  the  same  seeds, 
and  in  the  same  order. 

10.  On  the  second  day  after  planting,  determine  and 
record  the  temperature  for  each  of  the  squares  in  the  pan 
and  in  the  frame. 

11.  (a)  On  the  4th,  8th,  and  12th  days  from  planting, 
measure  into  the  soil  in  the  pan  enough  water  to  bring 
the  soil  to  saturation,  and  record  the  amount  of  water 
used. 

(6)  Apply  slowly  and  uniformly  to  the  soil  in  the 
frame  an  amount  of  water  equivalent  to  that  just  added 
to  the  pan. 

12.  On  the  5th  day  from  planting  determine  and  record 
temperatures  as  before. 

13.  Watch  carefully  for  and  record  the  date  of  the  first 
appearance  of  plants  in  each  square. 

14.  Note  and  record  any  peculiarities  or  differences 
in  the  behavior  of  the  plants  growing  under  the  different 
conditions. 

15.  Note  and  record  from  time  to  time  the  amount  of 
growth  made  by  the  plants. 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


235 


EXPERIMENT  11 

Shrinkage  of  Soils 

(A)   The   apparatus   required   for   this  experiment   is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  92.     It  consists  of : 

1 .  A  block  of  hardwood  (A)  6  inches  by  6  inches  and 
1  inch  thick. 

2.  Upon  it  is  mounted,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  a  rec- 


5*", 


$ 


FIG.  92.  —  Apparatus  for  studying  shrinkage  of  soils.      See  description 
under  Experiment  11. 


236  APPENDIX 

tangular  piece  of  brass  (B).    This  piece  of  brass  is  ^  inch 
high  and  -^  inch  thick,  with  smooth  inner  surface. 

3.  A  piece  of  brass  (C),  same  dimensions  as  (B),  but 
without  screw  holes,  and  not  attached  to  base  (A). 

4.  A  piece  of  brass  (D,)  \  inch  by  ^  inch  by  1  inch,  at- 
tached to  base  (A)  as  shown. 

5.  A  piece  of  wood   (E)t  f   inch  by  Ij   inches  by  f 
inch,  with  one  edge  cut  to  shoulder  upon  the  piece  (C)  as 
shown. 

6.  A  metal  pin  (F),  ^  inch  in  diameter,  mounted  in 
base  as  shown. 

7.  A  wooden  wedge  (G),  1 J  inches  long  and  f  inch  thick, 
cut  as  shown. 

8.  When  the  metal  piece  (C)  is  placed  on  the  base  as 
shown,  with  the  piece  of  wood  (E)  shouldering  upon  it, 
and  the  wedge  (G)  driven  into  place,  the  metal  pieces  (B) 
and  (C)  thus  form  a  box  3  inches  by  3  inches  by  \  inch 
deep. 

These  metal  pieces  might  be  made  of  babbit.  They 
may  be  made  of  iron  but  are  subject  to  rust.  If  made  of 
babbit,  the  thickness  should  not  be  less  than  f  inch. 

(B)  To  perform  the  experiment : 

1.  Measure  out  200  grams  of  clay  soil. 

2.  Place   in  dish   and   add   just    sufficient    water    to 
moisten. 

3.  Thoroughly  knead,  or  work,  until  the  mass  has  be- 
come thoroughly  mixed. 

4.  It  may  be  necessary  to  add  more  clay  as  the  kneading, 
or  working,  operation  proceeds. 

5.  Continue  the  kneading  until  the  water  has  taken  up 
all  the  soil  it  will  thoroughly  moisten,  in  other  words,  until 
the  mass  is  as  dense  as  it  can  be  made  by  kneading. 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE  237 

6.  Place  in  the  metal  frame  (EC)  a  piece  of  cheese- 
cloth sufficiently  large  to  cover  the  bottom  of  the  frame 
and  the  sides. 

7.  Into  the  frame  introduce  the  mass  of  wet  soil,  packing 
the  soil  down  thoroughly  and  filling  a  little  more  than 
flush  full. 

8.  With  a  sharp  straight  edge  or  knife,  cut  away  the 
excess,  leaving  the  frame  just  flush  full. 

9.  Remove  the  wedge  (G)  and  carefully  remove  section 
(C)  of  the  metal  frame,  and  then  carefully  remove  the  mass 
of  soil. 

10.  Place  the  mass  of  soil  where  it  will  remain  at  air 
temperature  for  two  days,  then  place  in  drying  oven  at 
100°  C.,  and  allow  to  remain  until  completely  dry. 

11.  At  the  end  of  each  24  hours,  measure  the  dimensions 
of  the  mass  of  soil  and  make  a  record  of  time  and  measure- 
ments. 

12.  Determine  the  percentage  of  shrinkage  up  to  the 
time  of  each  measurement. 

13.  Repeat  the  experiment  with  the  other  kinds  of 
soil  and  compare  the  results. 

EXPERIMENT  12 
Puddling  Soils 

1.  Procure  an  amount  of  mellow  heavy  field  clay. 

2.  Carefully  dry  so  that  the  crummy  structure  shall 
not  be  destroyed,  and  so  that  the  clay  shall  not  dry  in 
masses. 

3.  Weigh  25  grams  of  the  dry  clay  into  each  of  two 
funnels,  having  first  carefully  placed  a  properly  folded 
filter  paper  in  each  funnel  and  moistened. 


238  APPENDIX 

4.  With  cork  or  wax,  carefully  close  the  lower  end  of 
one  of  the  funnels. 

5.  Carefully  measure  into  the  funnel  that  has  the  lower 
end  of  its  stem  closed,  a  sufficient  amount  of  water  thor- 
oughly to  cover  the  clay  in  the   funnel,  and    carefully 
cover  funnel  with  watch  glass. 

6.  Over  the.  soil  in  the  funnel  with  the  open  stem,  care- 
fully pour  an  amount  of  water  equal  to  that  placed  on  the 
soil  in  the  other  funnel,  but  do  not  cover  with  watch  glass. 

7.  At  the  end  of  two  days  remove  the  watch  glass  from 
the  first  funnel  and  allow  to  stand  until  the  soil  has  become 
thoroughly  dry.     The  cork  or  wax  may  be  removed  from 
the  lower  end  of  the  stem  and  the  funnel  may  be  placed 
in  a  warm  place  to  hasten  the  drying. 

8.  When  both  lots  of  clay  have  become  thoroughly  dry, 
carefully  study  the  two  masses  with  regard  to  compactness 
and  resistance  to  crushing. 

EXPERIMENTS  13-18 
Apparatus 

For  the  four  following  experiments,  the  apparatus  shown 
in  Fig.  93  will  be  used.  It  is  practically  the  same  as 
that  devised  by  King,  and  illustrated  in  his  Physics  of 
Agriculture,  p.  293. 

It  is  suggested  that  tile  1  be  a  4-inch  cement  tile  of 
dry  mix  in  the  proportions  of  1  of  cement  to  5  of  sand. 

That  tile  2.  be  a  4-inch  cement  tile  of  wet  mix  in  the 
proportions  of  1  of  cement  to  3  of  sand. 

That  tile  3  be  a  4-inch  clay  tile  of  dense  texture. 

That  tile  4  be  a  4-inch  clay  tile  of  as  open  texture  as 
can  be  found. 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


239 


That  tile  5  be  a  6-inch  clay  tile  of  a  texture  similar  to 
that  of  4. 

That  the  nature  of  tile  6  be  determined  by  the  require- 
ments of  the  laboratory. 


FIG.  93.  —  Apparatus  for  studying  movement  of  water  through  tiles  and 
influence  of  tile  upon  ground  water.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  6,  tile  of  differ- 
ent sizes  and  nature,  and  explained  in  detail  in  Fig.  94 ;  W  .  .  .  W, 
water  gauge  tubes  connected  with  2-inch  tile  as  explained  and 
shown  in  Fig.  95.  See  description,  pages  238-239. 

These  tile  should  rest,  as  is  shown  in  the  figure,  in  a  fine 
sand  which  fills  the  tank  to  the  height  of  3  feet  above  the 
center  of  the  tile. 

Figure  94  shows  a  tile  in  cross  section  and  so  arranged 
that  water  can  enter  it  only  through  its  walls.  The  legend 
follows : 

A,  Section  of  tile. 

B,  Steel  or  cast  iron  plates. 

C,  Gaskets. 


240  APPENDIX 

D,  Half-inch  gas  pipe  threaded  as  shown,  and  with 
quarter-inch  holes  bored  in  its  walls  to  permit  the  passage 
of  water. 

E,  Ordinary  pipe  cap. 

F,  Nuts. 

G,  Coupling  to  attach  faucet  to  end  of  pipe. 

In  putting  the  apparatus  together,  the  chief  thing  is  to 
square  the  ends  of  the  tile  so  that  the  gasket  and  plate  will 
fit  fairly  snugly  before  the  nut  is  tightened.  The  manner 
of  putting  the  parts  together  and  setting  the  tile  in  place 
in  the  tank  will  not  be  difficult  for  a  mechanic,  or  indeed 
the  ordinary  individual,  to  accomplish.  In  setting  the 
tile  in  place,  a  bed  of  the  fine  sand  to  be  used  in  filling 
the  tank  should  first  be  laid  to  a  sufficient  depth  that  the 
tile  in  being  placed  may  rest  firmly  upon  the  sand. 

Figure  95  shows  the  manner  in  which  the  water  in  the 
tank  reaches  the  water  gauges : 

A  is  a  2-inch  tile.     It  may  be  larger. 

B,  Section  of  half-inch  gas  pipe. 

C,  A  collar  to  carry  the  section  of  gas  pipe  and  the  gauge 
seat. 

To  prevent  leaking,  the  joint  between  collar  and  opening 
in  wall  of  tank  should  be  soldered  on  the  inside. 

The  tile  lies  loosely  against  the  inner  wall  of  the  tank  and 
is  filled  with  gravel  to  permit  the  more  ready  passage  of 
water  from  the  sand  to  the  section  of  gas  pipe.  This  tile 
also  is  laid  in  place  upon  a  bed  of  the  sand  with  which 
the  tank  is  to  be  filled  later.  After  the  tile  are  all  in  place, 
more  sand  should  be  carefully  introduced  and  packed 
carefully  around  the  sides  of  each  until  the  sand  stands 
above  the  center  of  the  tile,  after  which  the  tank  should 
be  filled  to  the  height  of  3  feet  above  the  center  of  the  tile. 


LABORATORY  PRACTICE 


241 


FIG.  94.  —  Detailed  cross  section  of  Fig.  93,  showing  the  manner  of  set- 
ting up  tile  so  that  water  can  enter  only  through  walls.  Water 
gauge  is  not  a  part  of  this  detail.  See  description,  page  239. 


242 


APPENDIX 


\ 


\ 


FIG.  95.  —  Detailed  cross  section  of  Fig.  93,  showing  the  construction  for 
permitting  water  to  enter  water  gauge.     See  description,  page  240. 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE  243 

EXPERIMENT  13 

The  Capacity  of  Tile  of  Different  Sizes  and  Material  to 
Remove  Water  by  Percolation  through  the  Tile  Walls 

1.  Introduce  water  into  the  tank  till  the  surface  stands 
1  inch  deep  over  the  sand,  and  allow  to  stand  some  hours 
(unless  the  sand  be  already  saturated  to  some  inches 
above  the  level  of  the  tile). 

2.  Place  vessels  under  faucets. 

3.  Open  faucets  and  permit  water  to  flow  till  flow  be- 
comes constant  for  each  faucet. 

4.  Place  an  empty  vessel  under  each  faucet  and  record 
time. 

5.  After  an  hour  (more  or  less,  as  the  rate  of  flow  may 
require),  close  faucets  or  remove  vessels.     If  the  vessels 
are  placed  in  position  and  removed  in  the  same  order,  the 
time  of  the  series  will  be  sufficiently  close. 

6.  By  weighing  or  measuring,  determine  the  amount  of 
flow  for  each  tile. 

7.  Compute    flow  to   the  acre    for  each  size  of   tile, 
assuming  the  tile  drains  to  be  placed  4  rods  apart. 

EXPERIMENT  14 

The  Relation  of  Diameter  of  Tile  to  Rate  of  Flow  of  Water 
through  Walls 

With  data  obtained  in  Experiment  13,  determine 
whether  there  is  a  relation  between  the  diameter  of  tile 
and  the  rate  of  flow  through  its  walls.  This  experiment 
assumes  that  two  or  more  sizes  of  the  same  make  of  tile 
are  used  in  the  apparatus. 


244  APPENDIX 

EXPERIMENT  15 

Relation  of  Richness  and  Mix  of  Cement  Tile  to  Rate  of 
Flow  of  Water  through  Walls 

From  the  data  obtained  in  Experiment  13,  determine 
the  relation  of  flow  of  water  through  the  walls : 

(a)  Of  lean  dry-mix  tile  as  against  rich  wet-mix  tile, 

(b)  Of  cement  tile  as  against  common  clay  tile. 

EXPERIMENT  16 

The  Position  of  Water-Table  in  Tiled  Soils 

1.  By  filling  or  removal  (by  opening  faucets),  bring 
the  surface  of  water  to  the  surface  of  the  sand. 

2.  Close  all  faucets  and  allow  to  stand  sufficiently  long 
for  the  water  to  come  to  equilibrium  in  the  sand. 

3.  Measure  and  record  height  of  water  in  water  gauges. 

4.  Open  faucet  No.  1  and  permit  the  water  to  run. 

5.  At  the  end  of  every  five  minutes,  while  the  water  is 
flowing  from  faucet  No.  1,  measure  the  height  of  water 
in  water  gauges.     Ten-minute  periods  may  be   better. 
If   time   permits,    continue   these   readings   until   water 
ceases  to  flow  from  faucet.     There   should  be  a  student 
for  each  gauge,  in  order  that  the  readings  for  each  period 
may  be  made  simultaneously. 

6.  Plot  height  of  water  so  that  curves  shall  appear  on 
chart  for  each  set  of  readings  of  water  gauges. 


PRACTICAL   EXERCISES  245 

EXPERIMENT  17 

Influence  of  One  Inch  of  Rainfall  on  Height  of  Ground 
Water- Table 

1.  See  that  faucets  are  closed  and  that  water  in  gauges 
stands  not  much  over  6  inches  above  the  level  of  faucets. 

2.  Measure  and  record  height  of  water  in  gauges. 

3.  Determine  the  cross  section  of  tank.     It  will  ap- 
proximate 60  inches  by  15  inches. 

4.  Introduce  into  the  tank  an  amount  of  water  that 
equals  one  inch  over  the  cross  section  of  the  tank.     This 
will  be  approximately  900  cubic  inches  of  water. 

5.  After  water  has  come  to  constant  height  in  all  the 
gauges,  measure  and  record  height  of  water  in  each  gauge. 

6.  With  the  data  thus  obtained,  determine  the  influ- 
ence of  an  inch  of  rainfall  upon  the  height  of  ground  water- 
table  in  this  particular  soil. 

EXPERIMENT  18 
Percentage  of  Pore  Space 

With  the  data  obtained  in  Experiment  17,  determine  the 
percentage  of  pore  space  in  the  soil  in  the  tank. 

PRACTICAL   EXERCISES 

In  addition  to  the  laboratory  exercises  outlined  above, 
the  student  should  be  made  familiar,  by  practice,  with  the 
several  operations  involved  in  the  use  of  the  level,  laying 
out  of  drains,  and,  when  possible,  with  the  actual  work  of 
digging  drains  and  laying  tile.  These  operations  may  be 
grouped  something  as  follows : 


246  APPENDIX 

1 .  The  use  of  the  level.     Setting  up ;   taking  and  re- 
cording readings ;  determining  height  of  instrument ;  deter- 
mining difference  in  elevation  of  two  points. 

2.  Laying  out  a  drain.     Establishing  location;  driving 
grade  stakes;  placing  finders. 

3.  Notes.     Making  tables ;  introducing  stake  numbers ; 
distances;  and  elevation  of  stake  1. 

4.  Leveling.     Taking  back-sight  and  fore-sight  readings, 
and  properly  recording. 

5.  Computations.      Determining  the  elevations  of  the 
grade  stakes;  making  profile;  establishing  grade;  deter- 
mining depth  of  ditch  at  each  grade  stake;  determining 
the  height  of  grade  bar  at  each  grade  stake. 

6.  Setting  up  grade  bars. 

7.  Digging  ditch    (when    a    practice    ditch,    or    better 
where  a  real  ditch,  can  be  had  to  dig).     Opening  ditch; 
digging  ditch ;  finishing  bottom. 

8.  Laying  tile  and  blinding. 

9.  Filling. 

10.  Construction  of  hose-level  and  rods. 

11.  Use  of  the  hose-level.     Leveling  with  rods;    level- 
ing without  rods;    making  computations,  if  opportunity 
offers,  to  establish  grade,  and  determine  depth  of  ditch 
and  height  of  grade  bars  for  a  drain. 

These  operations  are  fully  explained  in  the  text  and 
may  be  taken  up  as  the  text  is  studied  or  they  may  follow 
later. 


INDEX 


Accuracy  of  readings  with  hose- 
level,  165. 

Adjusting  size  of  mains  to  needs,  86. 

Agencies  active  in  soil  ventilation, 
40. 

Ammonia  in  the  soil,  5. 

Angle  of  approach  of  laterals,  113. 

Angles,  for  connections,  114;  may 
be  purchased,  149,  150. 

Animal  forms  enter  soil,  56. 

Animal  needs  for  water,  204 ;  in 
acre-inches  of  rainfall,  205. 

Areas  of  imperfect  natural  drainage, 
66. 

Artesian  wells,  effect  on  under- 
ground water,  203. 

Back-sight,   100 ;    illustrated,   101 ; 

limitations    with    cheaper 

levels,  116;    reading,  100, 

116;    to  use,  100. 
Bacteria  and  molds,  57. 
Bad    soil    management,    effect    on 

evaporation,    202 ;     effect 

on  run-off,  202. 
Bayou  La  Fourche,  60. 
Biological  activities,  5,  57. 
Blackwelder  and  Barrows,  4. 
Blinding,  142. 
Boggy  places,  156. 
Boning   line,    131 ;     position,    131 ; 

stretching,     140 ;       using, 

140. 

Boning  rod,  131. 
Bottom  of  ditch,  elevation  of,  129  ; 

to  determine,  129. 
Bouyoucos,  George  J.,  14,  33. 
Breaking  grade  with  hose-level,  185. 
Breaking  up  of  prairies,  202. 
Briggs,  L.  J.,  10. 
By-products  of  plants,  18. 


Calling  meeting  to  consider  drain 
petition,  219. 

Cameron,  F.  K.,  202. 

Capillary  movements  of  water,  26  ; 
cause,  26  ;  direction  of,  28. 

Capillary  water,  25 ;  a  factor  in 
soil  structure,  52  ;  affects 
soil  structure,  29,  40; 
affects  other  physical 
conditions,  40 ;  affects 
ventilation,  .40,  52 ;  and 
use  of  plow,  29,  31 ;  as- 
sists in  food  preparation, 
52 ;  effect  of,  on  soil  tem- 
perature, 34,  52 ;  effects 
on  soil  structure  illus- 
trated, 45;  functions  of, 
52 ;  importance  of,  in 
plowing,  31 ;  proper  soil 
content,  34,  40 ;  relation 
of  drainage  to,  207 ;  sol- 
vent of  foods,  52. 

Cautions,  in  using  level,  99. 

Caving,  143. 

Cement  tile,  72 ;  general  precau- 
tions, 74  ;  mix,  73  ;  opin- 
ions concerning,  73  ;  pre- 
cautions suggested,  73 ; 
proportions,  73 ;  should 
be  made  with  care,  72. 

Changes,  in  flow  of  springs,  208 ; 
in  frost  dates,  213 ;  in 
ground  water-table,  201, 
202,  209;  in  rainfall, 
208 ;  in  temperature,  208. 

Changes  may  be  made  in  plans  and 
boundaries  of  a  drainage 
district,  220. 

Changing  climate,  208. 

Changing  grade  or  fall,  89. 

Changing  rainfall,  208. 


247 


248 


INDEX 


Changing  temperature,  208. 

Character  of  soils,  1. 

Cheaper  devices,  carpenter's  level, 
105 ;  hose-level,  107  ;  water 
level,  106. 

Cheaper  levels,  96  ;  using,  104. 

Checking  grade  bars,  137,   184. 

Checking  the  hose-level,  169. 

Chemical  changes,  56. 

Chemical  composition  of  soils,  1. 

Chief  causes  resulting  in  lowering 
of  ground  water,  201. 

City  wells,  effect  on  underground 
water.  203. 

Classification  of  swamps,  58. 

Clay  tile,  71. 

Cleavages  in  soil,  54. 

Climate,  affected  by  drainage,  208  ; 
changing,  208. 

Clogging  of  tile  by  roots,  142. 

Closing  the  upper  end  of  the  drain, 
143. 

Common  spade,  135. 

Common  swamps,  58. 

Computations,  102,  122,  123. 

Connecting  laterals  to  mains,  147  ; 
angles,  148  ;  making  open- 
ings for,  148 ;  side,  147  ; 
top,  147. 

Construction  of  district  drains,  221. 

Construction  of  ditch,  134 ;  econ- 
omy in,  134. 

Construction  of  silt-basin,  93. 

Controversial  evidence  must  be 
heard  in  considering  drain 
petitions,  220. 

Convenient  aids  in  using  data,  118. 

Cornell  reading  course,  193. 

Correcting  depth  of  ditch,  141. 

Correct  plowing  and  later  struc- 
ture of  the  soil,  32. 

Cost  of  digging  ditch,  162,  163; 
cost  per  rod,  163. 

Cost  of  hauling  tile,  162. 

Crop  needs,  water,  204. 

Crumbs,  soil,  theory  of,  32. 

Cumulative  effects  of  drainage,  57. 

Data  concerning  ground  water- 
table,  201. 


Data,  using,  133. 

Datum  plane,  99,  115;  above 
ground,  182 ;  for  hose- 
level,  180. 

Davis,  C.  A.,  61. 

Dayton  floods,  209. 

Delta  lands,  60,  62. 

Denitrification,  15. 

Denitrifiers,  16. 

Depth  of  cut,  131 ;  to  determine, 
131. 

Depth  of  drain,  80;  trial,  128, 
131. 

Designating  sub-mains  and  laterals, 
151. 

Destruction  of  forests,  202. 

Diked  farm  in  Michigan,  65 ;  size 
of,  65;  system,  65. 

Dikes,   61,   62. 

Diminishing  rainfall,  208 ;  due  to 
drainage,  208. 

Direct  draft  on  underground  water, 
203. 

Direct  reading  of  leveling  rod,  100. 

Dismal  Swamp,  58. 

Distance  apart  of  tile  drains,  83 ; 
of  grade  stakes,  110. 

Ditch  cleaner,  134. 

Ditch,  cost  of  digging,  162 ;  cor- 
recting depth  of,  141 ; 
construction  of,  134 ;  fill- 
ing, 143  ;  finishing,  140  ; 
not  too  wide,  138 ;  open- 
ing, 138  ;  order  of  steps  in 
installing  a  system,  163 ; 
precautions,  143 ;  remov- 
ing the  soil  from,  139  ;  us- 
ing line  for,  138. 

Ditching  tools,  134 ;  common 
spade,  135;  hook,  134; 
pick,  135 ;  scoop,  154 ; 
spade,  134. 

Drain,  80;  depth,  80;  distance 
apart  of,  83 ;  factors 
governing,  83 ;  modified 
by  subsoil,  83 ;  limits  of 
depth,  80. 

Drainage  by  wells,  153 ;  by  wind- 
mill, 198;  by  electric 
motor,  198 ;  general  in- 


INDEX 


249 


formation,  69 ;  land  re- 
quiring, 69 ;  methods  of, 
70 ;  need  for,  indicated, 
69;  tile,  71. 

Drainage,  and  climate,  208 ;  and 
floods,  210;  and  surface 
temperature,  214. 

Drainage  and  ground  water  supply, 
200. 

Drainage  districts,  61. 

Drainage  effects,  54 ;  cumulative, 
57 ;  how  the  changes 
take  place,  54 ;  perma- 
nent removal  of  stand- 
ing water,  54. 

Drainage  indications,  187 ;  areas 
not  having  sufficient  fall  or 
outlet,  197 ;  areas  with 
surface  only  slightly  above 
stream  or  lake,  197  ;  con- 
siderable slopes  of  light 
soil,  188 ;  extended  areas 
of  heavy  soil,  189  ;  limited 
flat  or  depressed  areas  on 
slopes,  190 ;  on  hill  tops, 
heavy,  light,  191 ;  low, 
flat  areas  of  light  soil,  187  ; 
muck  or  swamp  areas, 
194 ;  rolling  areas  of 
heavy  soil,  189 ;  shallow 
ponds  resting  on  muck 
beds,  196  ;  shallow  ponds 
on  other  than  muck  beds, 
197 ;  small  muck  areas 
without  natural  outlet, 
195 ;  springy  areas  on 
slopes,  193  ;  springy,  low, 
flat  areas,  192. 

Drainage  laws,  215. 

Right  of  a  group  of  individuals 
to  drain,  217  ;  reason  for, 
217. 

Mutual  agreements,  in  organiz- 
ing   districts,    223 ;     pre- 
cautions, 223. 
Procedure: 

Calling  of  meetings,  219. 
Construction,       by       whom 
directed,    221 ;    by   whom 
done,  221  ;    means  of  pro- 


viding    funds     for,     221 ; 
repairs  and  upkeep,  221. 

Grievances,  how  met,  222 ; 
how  satisfied,  222 ;  ex- 
penses of  trial,  222. 

Organization  of  district  may 
not  take  place  till  organ- 
ized, 220. 

Petitions,  218 ;  must  in- 
clude, 218;  number  of 
signers,  218 ;  to  whom 
presented,  218. 

Purpose  of  meeting,  bound- 
aries of  district  may  be 
changed,  220 ;  changes  in 
plans  may  be  made,  220 ; 
controversial  evidence, 
220 ;  oath  administered, 
220 ;  objections  heard, 
220 ;  proposed  district 
must  be  examined,  220. 

Records,   222;    details,  222. 

Time  a  factor,  222. 
Right  of  the  individual  to  drain 
his  lands  when  adjacent 
to  a  natural  water  course, 
215;  by  agreement,  217; 
by  law,  217 ;  to  drain 
across  the  property  of 
another,  216 ;  when  not 
adjacent  to  a  natural 
water  course,  216. 
Right  to  enter  another's  land 

to  care  for  drains,  217. 
Unlawful    acts,    223;     penalties 
for,  223  ;   punishable,  224. 
Drainage  projects,  62. 
Drained  muck  soils  shrink,  158. 
Drain  heads,  153. 

Draining  of  mines,  effect  on  under- 
ground water,  202. 

Economic  losses,  68 ;    causes,  68. 

Economic  oversights,  66. 

Effect  of  ideal  conditions  on  ger- 
mination, 9. 

Effects  of  drainage,  on  animal 
forms,  56 ;  on  chemical 
changes,  56;  on  physical 
changes,  56 ;  on  root 


250 


INDEX 


development,  56  ;  on  ven- 
tilation, 56. 

Elevation  of  bottom  of  ditch,  129 ; 
of  stakes,  102,  122  ;  to  de- 
termine, 129. 

Elliott,  C.  G.,  73,  76,  80,  86. 

Encircling  ditch,  63. 

England,  leads  in  acre-yields  of 
crops,  204 ;  rainfall  and 
wheat  growing,  204 ;  tile 
drainage  in,  192,  began 
in  1684,  192. 

Estimates,  of  tile,  114. 

Expense  apportioned,  64. 

Expense  of  drainage  system  and 
pumping  plant,  64 ;  of 
constructing  district 

drains,  how  met,  221. 

Experience  of  other  countries  with 
falling  ground  water,  207. 

Factors  determining  size  of  tile  to 
use,  85. 

Fall  of  tile,  88 ;  computations  of, 
with  hose-level,  183 ;  de- 
termining, 129 ;  to  de- 
termine with  hose-level, 
183 ;  uniform,  89. 

Farm  operations  delayed,  189. 

Filling  the  ditch,  143 ;  by  plow  or 
scraper,  143. 

Finders,  109,  110;  sometimes  not 
needed  with  hose-level, 
186. 

Finishing  ditch  by  hand,  143. 

Finishing  silt-basin,  93. 

Finishing  the  outlet,  144. 

Fippin,  E.  O.,  74,  88,  135,  142, 
193. 

Fitting  the  joints,  142. 

Floods,  Dayton  floods,  209;  Mis- 
souri floods,  209 ;  Paris 
floods,  209;  relation  to 
drainage,  210;  to  erratic 
rpinfall,  209;  to  forests, 
210;  to  rainfall,  209. 

Fore-sight,  101 ;  its  use,  101 ; 
limitations  with  cheaper 
levels,  116;  reading,  101. 

French  Acadians,  60. 


Fresno  region,  160. 

Frost  dates,  changes  in,  213. 

Frosts  and  wooded  areas,  214. 

General  precautions,  concerning 
cement  tile,  74. 

Geneva,  12,  13. 

Germination  of  seeds,  6 ;  affected 
by  temperature,  6 ;  af- 
fected by  ventilation,  16 ; 
desirable  temperature  con- 
ditions, 8  ;  occurs  at  very 
low  temperatures,  8 ;  oc- 
curs on  ice,  8  ;  prevented 
by  exclusion  of  oxygen, 
16. 

Glazed  tile,  7  ;   qualities  of,  72. 

Good  soil  management  will  improve 
ground  water  conditions, 
206. 

Grade  bars,  131 ;  checking,  137, 
184  ;  height  of,  131 ;  nail- 
ing in  place,  137  ;  setting 
up,  136 ;  to  determine 
height,  133 ;  with  hose- 
level,  184. 

Grade  or  fall,  changing,  89 ;  of 
mains,  88 ;  preliminaries 
to  establishing  grade,  125  ; 
profile,  125;  range  of,  88; 
relation  to  size  of  tile,  88 ; 
to  establish,  126;  uni- 
formity of,  89. 

Grade  stakes,  108 ;  distance  apart, 
110;  may  not  be  needed 
with  hose-level,  186. 

Ground  water-table,  falling,  200; 
rising,  200. 

Haberland,  G.,  7. 

Hall,  A.  D.,  11. 

Hard-pan,  188,  192. 

Harlem  lake,  64. 

Hauling  and  distributing  tile,  114. 

Heat  losses,  extent  of,  by  evapora- 
tion, 39. 

Heat,  of  soils,  33  ;  of  vaporization, 
36 ;  temperature  effects 
of,  37,  38;  theoretical 
influence  on  soil,  51. 


INDEX 


251 


Height  of  instrument,  99. 

Hilgard,  E.  W.,  5. 

Horse  and  power  machines,  135. 

Hose-level,  107,  165 ;  accuracy  of 
reading,  165 ;  availability 
and  cost,  166 ;  breaking 
the  grade,  185 ;  checking 
instrument,  169 ;  check- 
ing up  on  depth  of  ditch, 
184 ;  computing  eleva- 
tions, 177 ;  construction, 
167  ;  construction  of  rods, 
170;  datum  plane,  180; 
for  more  extensive  work, 
186 ;  grade  stakes  not 
needed,  186  ;  how  to  read 
height  of  column,  174 ; 
introducing  water  into, 
168;  leveling,  181;  limi- 
tations, 166 ;  long  stakes, 
180  ;  materials  needed  for, 
166 ;  moving  the  level, 
175 ;  negative  reading, 
175 ;  positive  reading, 
175 ;  recording  data,  176  ; 
recording  in  feet  and 
inches,  178 ;  removing 
air  bubbles  from,  168 ; 
rods  for,  170  ;  suggestions 
concerning  material,  167 ; 
to  determine  fall,  183  ;  to 
determine  height  of  grade 
bar,  182 ;  to  use  hose- 
level,  173 ;  using  the 
hose-level  without  rods, 
180 ;  zero  reading,  175. 

How  effects  of  drainage  take  place, 
54. 

How  plant-food  exists  in  the  soil,  4. 

How  plants  secure  their  foods,  3. 

How  water  approaches  tile,  84. 

How  water  enters  tile,  75. 

Humid  areas,  58 ;  alluvial  plains, 
58 ;  classification,  58 ;  Dis- 
mal Swamp,  58 ;  extent 
of  areas,  58 ;  marine 
marshes,  61 ;  Mississippi 
delta,  60 ;  swamps  of 
drift  areas,  60 ;  value  of, 
58. 


Hutchinson,  H.  B.,  5. 
Hygroscopic  water,  25. 

Impervious  strata,  192. 

Increasing  evaporation,  202. 

Increasing  the  run-off,  202. 

Intelligent  handling  of  soil  needed, 
206 ;  influence  on  ground 
water,  206. 

Interesting  facts  concerning  ground 
water-table,  201. 

Irrigated  lands,  cost  of  tiling,  161 ; 
observations  concerning, 
161 ;  subject  to  accumu- 
lation of  gravitational 
water,  159 ;  injured  by, 
159 ;  remedy,  160. 

Joining     lateral     to     mains,     147 ; 

three  methods,  147. 
Jones,  E.  R.,  199. 
Jordan  River  region,  160. 

Keeping  notes,  102,  117. 

Kinds  of  tile,  71. 

King  F.  H.,  10,  11,  23,  47,  50. 

Lands  of  irrigated  regions  injured 
by  gravitational  wate* , 
159;  remedy  for,  160; 
tiled,  160. 

Lands  requiring  drainage,  69. 

Laterals,  76 ;  angle  of  approach, 
113;  depth  of  outlet  of, 
146 ;  designating,  151 ; 
joining  to  mains,  147 ; 
leveling  for,  146  ;  making 
provisions  for,  147  ; 
method  of  joining  to  main, 
147  ;  size  of  tile,  146. 

Laying  out  a  drain,  108 ;  a  main, 
109  ;  a  system,  108. 

Lenawee  Co.,  Michigan,  163. 

Level,  the,  94 ;  carpenter's  level, 
105 ;  cheap  devices,  105 ; 
cheaper  levels,  96 ;  cau- 
tions, 102 ;  direct  reading, 
100 ;  hose-level,  107 ; 
moving  and  re-setting, 
103  ;  purpose,  98 ;  setting 


252 


INDEX 


up,  98 ;  target  reading, 
100;  to  determine  the 
height,  99;  using,  98; 
using  cheaper  levels,  104  ; 
water  level,  106. 

Leveling,  94,  95 ;  cautions,  102 ; 
computations,  102,  122, 
123 ;  convenient  aids, 
118;  direct  reading,  100  ; 
for  drains,  115;  for 
laterals,  146 ;  in  detail, 
123;  keeping  notes,  102, 
117;  moving  and  re- 
setting, 103 ;  records,  102, 
117;  target  reading,  100; 
with  cheaper  levels,  119; 
with  high-grade  level, 
120 ;  with  hose-level,  173. 

Leveling  rods,  97. 

Leveling  rods  for  hose-level,  170; 
construction,  170;  long 
rod,  171 ;  short  rod,  171 ; 
zero  mark  on,  170. 

Limitations  of  hose-level,  166. 

Location  of  outlet,  80. 

Location  of  silt- basin,  90,  91. 

Location  of  upper  ends  of  mains  and 
laterals,  114. 

Long  stakes  for  use  with  hose- 
level,  180. 

Lowering  of  ground  water-table, 
200,  206;  bound  to  be 
remedied,  207 ;  case  not 
serious,  206 ;  experience 
in  other  countries,  207 ; 
remediable,  207. 

McGee,  W  J,  200. 

Mains,  76 ;  adjusting  to  needs, 
88 ;  grade  of,  88  ;  chang- 
ing, 88 ;  range  of  grade, 
88 ;  relation  of  size  to 
grade,  88. 

Making  close  joints,  142. 

Making  computations,  102,  122, 
123. 

Making  openings  in  tile,  150. 

Marine  marshes,  61 ;  extent,  61 ; 
how  formed,  61  ;  value,  61. 

Maximum  acre  capacity  of  tile,  86. 


Meaning    of    lowering    of    ground 

water-table,  in    terms    of 

rainfall,  206. 

Methods  of  drainage,  70. 
Michigan  Agricultural  College  farm, 

158. 

Michigan  Experiment  Station,  14. 
Michigan  system,  65. 
Miller,  N.  H.,  5. 
Minnesota  system,  65. 
Mississippi  delta,  60. 
Missouri  valley  floods,  209. 
Molds,  57. 

Moving  and  resetting  level,  103. 
Muck     soils     shrink     after     being 

drained,  158. 
Musselman,  H.  H.,  72. 

Nailing  grade  bars  in  place,  137. 

Nebraska,  12. 

Need  for  drainage  indicated,  69. 

Negative  readings  with  hose-level, 
175. 

New  Orleans,  62. 

Nitrification,  6 ;  modified  by  tem- 
perature, 6. 

Nitrogen,  ammonia  in  the  soil,  5 ; 
forms  in  the  soil,  5  ;  nitric 
nitrogen,  5;  preparation,  5. 

Nitrogen  fixation,  6  ;  accomplished 
by  bacteria,  6 ;  accom- 
plished by  molds,  6 ;  on 
roots  of  legumes,  6. 

Notes,  102,  117. 

Oath  administered  in  some  states 
in  receiving  controversial 
evidence  regarding  drain- 
age matters,  220. 

Ohio,  average  yields  of  wheat,  204. 

Open  ditch,  62,  70. 

Opening  the  ditch,  138 ;  using  line 
for,  138. 

Optimism,  207. 

Ordering  tile,  114. 

Order  of  steps  in  installing  a  tile 
system,  163. 

Organizations  of  drainage  district 
must  be  authorized,  220, 
223. 


INDEX 


253 


Outlets,  80;  finishing,  144;  loca- 
tion of,  80,  108;  protec- 
tion for,  144 ;  relation  to 
main,  80,  138 ;  screen  for, 
144 ;  sewer  or  iron  pipe 
for,  144 ;  underground, 
152. 

Over-mellowness  of  some  soils, 
19 ;  may  prevent  ger- 
mination, 20. 

Owosso  Sugar  Co.,  65. 

Paris  floods,  209. 

Patten,  A.  J.,  72. 

Pennsylvania,  13. 

Permanent  removal  of  standing 
water,  54. 

Physical  changes,  56. 

Physical  composition  of  soils,  1. 

Physical  condition  of  soils,  2. 

Physical  inter-relations,  29. 

Pick,  135. 

Plant-food  elements,  2 ;  dissolved 
in  water,  4  ;  forms  of,  2 ; 
how  plants  secure,  3,  4 ; 
how  they  exist  in  the  soil, 
4 ;  proper  supply,  3 ; 
table  of,  3. 

Plow,  the,  how  it  mellows  the  soil, 
31. 

Positive  readings  with  hose-level, 
175. 

Preliminaries  to  establishing  grade, 
125. 

Present  rainfall  sufficient  for  larger 
crops,  206. 

Profile,  125. 

Puddling  soils,  29  ;  favored  by  over- 
wetness  of  soil,  29 ;  in- 
fluence on  plowing,  47 ; 
require  labor  to  prepare 
for  planting,  46. 

Pumping,  66. 

Pumping  plant,  63;  capacity  of, 
63  ;  expense  of  installing, 
64. 

Quicksand,  155 ;  shield  for,  155 ; 
guarding  against  caving, 
156  ;  to  lay  tile  in,  156. 


Rainfall,  changing,  208 ;  in  Eng- 
land, 211 ;  records  do  not 
indicate  diminishing  rain- 
fall, 211;  relation  to 
floods,  209 ;  varies  in 
large  cycles,  211. 

Reclamation,  Michigan  system, 
65 ;  Minnesota  system, 
65 ;  of  common  swamps, 
61 ;  of  delta  lands,  62  ;  of 
drift  swamp  lands,  65  ; 
of  marine  marshes,  65. 

Recording  readings  of  hose-level, 
168. 

Records  do  not  indicate  diminish- 
ing rainfall,  211. 

Records,  leveling,  102. 

Records  of  proceedings  in  organiz- 
ing and  carrying  out  work 
of  drainage  district,  222. 

Relation  of  angle  of  approach  to 
main  to  distance  apart  of 
tile,  110;  of  main  grade 
stakes  to  laterals,  110. 

Relation  of  diameter  of  tile  to 
capacity,  85. 

Relation  of  drainage,  to  capillary 
and  ground  water,  207 ; 
to  cut-off,  207  ;  to  run-off, 
207. 

Relation  of  floods  to  rainfall,  209 ; 
to  erratic  rainfall,  209. 

Relation  of  forests  to  floods,  209. 

Relation  of  size  to  fall,  86. 

Removal  of  forests,  effect  on  ground 
water-table,  202 ;  in- 
creases evaporation,  202  ; 
increases  run-off,  202. 

Removal  of  surface  reservoirs, 
effect  on  ground  water- 
table,  202. 

Removing  air  bubbles  from  hose- 
level,  168. 

Removing  excess  of  surface  water, 
157. 

Removing  soil  from  ditch,  139. 

Repair  and  up-keep  of  district 
drains,  221. 

Rest  period,  11 ;    need  for,  12. 

Right  of  groups  of  owners  of  lands 


254 


INDEX 


to  drain,  217;  grievances 
must  be  heard,  222 ;  ob- 
jections must  be  heard, 
220;  procedure,  218,  221. 

Right  of  groups  of  owners  to  enter 
into  mutual  agreement  to 
drain,  223. 

Right  of  owners  of  lands  to  drain, 
215,  216. 

Rising  of  ground  water-table,  200. 

Rod  men,  short-rod  man,  173 ; 
long-rod  man,  174. 

Root  action,  best  temperature 
for,  11 ;  development,  11, 
56 ;  dies  in  absence  of 
oxygen,  17  ;  growth,  best 
temperature  for,  11 ;  pres- 
sure, 10;  affected  by 
temperature,  10;  systems 
of  crops,  17;  use  of,  11. 

Sachs,  J.,  6. 

Salts   in   marine   marsh   soils,    66 ; 

removed  by  leaching,  66. 
Schreiner,  Oswald,  44. 
Screen  for  outlet,   144. 
Seed-bed,  early  preparation  of,  3. 
Setting  up  grade  bars,  136. 
Setting  up  the  level,  98. 
Shaller,  N.  S.,  160. 
Shallow  open  ditches,  70. 
Shantz,  H.  L.,  10. 
Shaw,  R.  S.,  60. 
Shields  for  laying  tile  in  quicksand, 

155. 

Shrinkage  of  marsh  soils,  66. 
Side    connections    of    laterals    to 

mains,  147. 
Silt-basins,   90 ;     construction,   93  ; 

finishing,    93 ;    how    they 

perform    their   work,    92 ; 

location,  90 ;   use,  90,  91. 
Simple  devices  for  leveling,  105. 
Size  of  tile  to  use,  84 ;  for  laterals, 

146. 

Size  of  unit,  63. 
Skinner,  J.  J.,  44. 
Sluice  gates,  66. 
Small  wet  areas,  67. 
Soil  crumbs,  32. 


Soil  fissuring,  interferes  with  root 
development,  20 ;  roots 
injured  by,  21. 

Soil  heat,  sources  of,  33. 

Soil  structure,  defined,  19 ;  ideal 
condition  of  structure, 
19  ;  influence  on  capillary 
water,  41,  on  germination, 
20 ;  on  root  development, 
20 ;  on  soil  temperature, 
43 ;  on  soil  ventilation, 
41 ;  on  storage  capacity, 
42 ;  limits  extremes  of 
temperature,  43 ;  modi- 
fied by  life  forms,  41 ; 
over-mellow  condition  of, 
19  ;  management  of  such 
soil,  19. 

Soil  texture,  defined,  19. 

Soils,  character  of,  1 ;  chemical 
composition,  1 ;  chief 
physical  conditions,  2 ; 
cold  soils,  36 ;  manage- 
ment, needed,  206 ;  over- 
wet  soils,  36 ;  physical 
composition,  1 ;  physical 
condition,  2 ;  rest  period 
of,  11 ;  temperature,  ac- 
tual, 12 ;  modified  by 
capillary  water,  33 ;  ob- 
served in  Germany,  13 ; 
observed  in  Michigan,  14  ; 
observed  in  Nebraska,  13  ; 
observed  in  Pennsylvania, 
13 ;  observed  in  Switzer- 
land, 14 ;  ventilation, 
affects  root  action,  17 ; 
crops,  18 ;  influence  in 
food  preparation,  14 ;  in- 
fluences germination,  16  ; 
prevents  food  destruction, 
15 ;  removes  objection- 
able products  of,  15. 

Special  conditions,  152 ;  problems, 
152. 

Specific  heat  of  soils,  33. 

Springs,  changing  flow,  208. 

Springy  places,  156. 

Steps  in  leveling,  115. 

Storer,  F.  H.,  23. 


INDEX 


255 


Stretching  the  boning  line,  140. 
Sump  to  gather  water,  198. 
Surface    tension,    26 ;     illustrated, 

27. 
Surface  water,  to  remove  excess  of, 

157,  158. 

T's,  114,  150. 

Table  for  hose-level  data,  176. 

Table  of  plant-food  element,  3. 

Target,  97  ;  reading,  100. 

Temperature,  affected  by  drainage, 
214 ;  affects  germination, 
6 ;  affects  rest  period  of 
soil,  11 ;  affects  root  ac- 
tion, 10 ;  changing,  208  ; 
tables,  212,  213  ;  desirable 
temperature  conditions, 
8;  effects  illustrated,  8; 
effect  of  bad  structure  on, 
51,  52;  effect  of  gravita- 
tional water  on,  51 ;  maxi- 
mum for  germination,  6 ; 
minimum  for  germina- 
tion, 6 ;  not  same  for  all 
seeds,  6 ;  optimum  for 
germination,  6. 

Thermal  movements,  28  ;  direction 
of,  28. 

Tile,  71;  blinding,  142;  cement, 
72  ;  clay,  71 ;  clogging  by 
roots,  142  ;  cost  of  haul- 
ing, 162 ;  durability  of, 
72  ;  estimating  and  order- 
ing, 114;  fitting  the  joint, 
146 ;  glazed,  71 ;  hauling 
and  distributing,  1 14 ; 
how  water  approaches,  84  ; 
how  water  enters,  75  ;  laid 
deeper  in  muck  soils,  185  ; 
laterals,  76  ;  laying,  141 ; 
mains,  76 ;  making  close 
joints,  141,  142 ;  relation 
of  diameter  to  capacity, 
85 ;  size  to  use,  84 ;  sub- 
mains,  76  ;  systems,  76  ; 
use  only  sound,  75. 

Tile  drainage,  71 ;  in  England,  192. 

Tile  hook,  134. 

Tile  scoop,  134. 


Tiling  springy  places,  156 ;  boggy 
places,  156. 

Time  a  factor  in  proceedings  in 
organizing  a  drainage  dis- 
trict, 222. 

Top  connection  of  lateral  to  main, 
147. 

Tractor  ditchers,  136. 

Trap  for  outlet,  146. 

Trial  depths,  128. 

Tubingen,  13. 

Underground  dike,  198. 

Underground  outlets,  152 ;  ex- 
tent of  area  drained  by, 
153. 

Uniform  grade  or  fall,  89. 

Unlawful  acts  in  matters  of  drain- 
age, 223;  penalties,  223; 
punishment,  224. 

Using  data,  133. 

Using  line  for  opening  ditch,  138. 

Using  the  boning  line,  140. 

Using  the  level,  98 ;  cheaper  levels, 
104,  119. 

Van  Tiegham,  6. 

Vertical  systems  of  drainage,  153. 

Waring,  Geo.  E.,  Jr.,  80. 

Warrington,   Robert,  7. 

Waste  lands,  68. 

Water,  conditions  of,  24. 

Capillary,      25      (see      capillary 

water). 

Gravitational,    24    (see    gravita- 
tional water). 
Hygroscopic,   25  ;    amounts,  25  ; 

agricultural  value,  25. 
Surface,  25. 

Water,  dissolves  and  carries  food, 
10,  22,  23 ;  how  it  enters 
tile,  75 ;  influences  ger- 
mination, 22 ;  in  biologi- 
cal activities,  21 ;  in  food 
preparation,  21,  in  physi- 
cal and  chemical  changes, 
21 ;  how  it  enters  the 
plant,  10 ;  losses  by  evap- 
oration, 50 ;  service  of 


256 


INDEX 


water,  24  ;  service  within 
the  plant,  23 ;  required 
by  crops,  10,  23,  24,  204. 

Water,  movements  of,  26. 

Capillary,  26  (see  capillary  move- 
ments) ;  causes  of,  26 ; 
direction  of,  28. 

Thermal,  28 ;  causes,  28 ;  direc- 
tion of,  28. 

Water  gauge  tubes  for  hose-level, 
166. 

Water  level,  106. 

Water-table,  ground. 


Data  concerning,  201. 

Facts  concerning,  201. 

Falling  of,  200. 

Chief  causes  of,  201 ;  removal 
of  forests,  .increasing  run- 
off, 202;  breaking  of 
prairies,  increasing  evap- 
oration, 202 ;  direct 
draft  upon  underground 
water,  by  draining  mines, 
203,  by  artesian  wells,  203, 
by  city  wells,  203. 

Rising,  200. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


The  following  pages  contain  advertisements  of  a 
few  of  the  Macmillan  books  on  kindred  subjects 


The  Principles  of  Soil  Management 

Completely  revised  and  rewritten  by 

THOMAS  LYTTLETON  LYON 

Professor  of  Soil  Technology  in  the  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture 

ELMER  O.   PIPPIN 

Extension  Professor  of  Soil  Technology  in  the  New  York  State  College  of 
Agriculture 

HARRY  OLIVER  BUCKMAN 

Assistant  Professor  of  Soil  Technology  in  the  New  York  State  College  of 
Agriculture 

8 10  pp.,  i2mo,  $1.90 
Rural  Text-Book  Series 

In  the  last  five  years  much  has  been  added  to  our  knowl- 
edge of  soils.  In  no  equal  period  of  time  have  there  been 
so  many  contributions  to  the  subject  by  investigators  in  all 
of  the  countries  of  Europe  as  well  as  our  own.  As  the  soil 
is  a  very  complex  material,  it  has  been  studied  by  agrono- 
mists, chemists,  physicists,  botanists,  bacteriologists  and 
zoologists,  and  the  literature  is  scattered  throughout  the 
journals  of  all  of  these  sciences.  In  the  work,  thus  made 
necessary,  of  bringing  this  book  completely  abreast  of  the 
present  knowledge,  the  cooperation  of  Dr.  H.  O.  Buckman 
has  been  secured.  In  a  general  way  the  arrangement  of 
the  book  is  the  same  as  before,  but  the  matter  itself  is 
almost  entirely  changed.  In  every  chapter  change  and 
advance  have  been  possible,  but  particularly  in  those  relat- 
ing to  the  colloidal  material  of  the  soil,  the  organic  matter, 
the  geo-chemical  relations,  acidity  of  soils,  absorption,  cata- 
lytic fertilizers,  and  soil  surveys.  The  make-up  of  the  book 
has  been  altered  by  dividing  it  into  chapters  instead  of 
using  the  system  of  main  heads  and  sub-heads  used  before. 
A  very  complete  set  of  references  to  all  literature  cited 
enables  the  reader  to  go  back  to  the  original  sources  when- 
ever he  wishes.  On  account  of  the  new  material  added,  the 
book  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  previous  editions. 


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Dry  Farming 

A  system  of  agriculture  for  countries  under  a  low  rainfall 
BY  JOHN  A.  WIDTSOE,  A.M.,  PH.D. 

President  of  the  Agricultural  College  of  Utah 

445  pp.,  ill,  i2mo,  $1.50 
Rural  Science  Series 

The  first  book  to  assemble  and  organize  the  known  facts 
of  science  in  their  relation  to  the  profitable  production  of 
plants,  without  irrigation,  in  regions  of  limited  rainfall. 
With  accuracy  and  clearness  the  author  discusses  the  dry- 
farm  areas,  dry-farm  soils  and  the  storage  of  water  in  them, 
tilling,  plowing,  fallowing,  sowing  and  harvesting,  crops  best 
adapted  and  implements  most  useful.  The  book  will  be 
found  well  adapted  to  courses  in  this  increasingly  important 
subject. 

The  Principles  of  Irrigation  Practice 

BY  JOHN  A.   WIDTSOE,   A.M.,   PH.D. 

President  of  the  Utah  Agricultural  College 

496  pp.,  ill,  i2mo,  $i.j$ 
Rural  Text-Book  Series 

Although  much  of  the  writing  on  irrigation  has  been  from 
the  engineering  point  of  view,  this  book  is  written  distinctly 
from  the  point  of  view  of  practical  farming.  The  author 
has  drawn  not  only  upon  his  own  intimate  knowledge  of 
conditions  in  an  irrigated  country,  but  also  upon  all  the 
available  literature  on  the  application  of  water  to  land  for 
irrigating  purposes.  The  effect  of  water  on  the  soil,  the 
losses  by  seepage  and  evaporation,  the  service  that  water 
renders  to  the  plants  and  the  practical  means  of  employing 
water  for  the  growing  of  the  different  crops  are  all  discussed 
clearly  and  thoroughly.  The  book  will  therefore  be  found 
an  excellent  one  for  use  as  a  text  in  college  courses  on  irriga- 
tion, and  will  also  be  of  great  value  to  the  farmer  in  irrigated 
regions. 

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The  Corn  Crops 


A  discussion  of  maize,  kafirs,  and  sorghums  as  grown  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada 

BY   E.    G.   MONTGOMERY 

Professor  of  Farm  Crops  in  the  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture  at 
Cornell  University 

347  pp.,  ill,  i2mo,  $1.60 
Rural  Text-Book  Series 

The  art  of  crop  production  is  based  on  an  application  of 
the  sciences,  (a)  to  producing  a  natural  condition  as  per- 
fectly adapted  as  possible  to  the  needs  of  some  particular 
crop,  or  (b)  the  adaptation  of  the  crop  to  certain  natural 
conditions. 

The  study  of  crop  production  for  any  large  region  involves 
a  study  of  four  general  phases  of  the  subject,  as:  i.  The 
plant,  its  structure,  physiology,  and  normal  requirements. 
2.  A  general  survey  of  the  region  where  it  is  proposed  to 
cultivate  the  plant,  to  note  how  the  natural  conditions  found 
correspond  to  the  needs  of  the  plant.  3.  The  adaptation 
of  the  plant  on  the  one  hand  to  natural  conditions  and 
adaptation  of  soil  on  the  other  to  the  needs  of  the  plant. 
Maximum  production  is  obtained  when  perfect  adaptation  is 
secured.  4.  Protection  is  necessary  against  other  indige- 
nous plants,  fungous  diseases,  and  insects. 

The  treatment  of  subjects  in  the  text  follows  practically 
the  above  plan.  The  plan  also  allows  a  wider  use  of  the 
text  for  different  classes  of  students.  The  first  two  divi- 
sions are  technical  and  should  only  be  studied  by  students 
who  have  training  in  the  sciences  involved.  With  less  ad- 
vanced students  the  work  may  begin  with  Part  III,  Adapta- 
tion. The  third  and  fourth  divisions  deal  with  the  more 
practical  phases  of  production  and  are  written  in  a  more 
popular  style,  in  order  to  make  this  double  use  of  the  book 
possible.  . 

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Forage  Plants  and  Their  Culture 

By   CHARLES   V.    PIPER,    M.S. 

Agrostologist  in  charge  of  forage  crop  investigations,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

618  pp.,  ill,  I2mo,  $1.75 
Rural  Text-Book  Series 

A  clear  and  concise  account  of  the  present  knowledge  of 
forage  cropping  in  North  America,  intended  primarily  as  a 
text-book  for  the  use  of  agricultural  college  students.  The 
author  presents  the  subject  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the 
student  realize  the  shortcomings  of  the  present  knowledge 
on  the  subject,  as  well  as  the  progress  which  has  been 
definitely  accomplished.  All  the  plants  and  crops  which 
are  used  for  forage  and  for  hay  are  described,  and  their 
botanical  characteristics  and  means  of  cultivation  are  care- 
fully discussed.  Timothy,  clovers,  blue-grasses,  orchard- 
grasses,  southern  grasses,  sorghums,  millets,  alfalfa,  peas, 
vetches,  soy-beans,  and  root-crops  are  all  treated.  Included 
are  descriptions  of  plants  and  seeds,  methods  of  seeding, 
harvesting,  and  preserving,  and  discussions  of  utility  and 
enemies  of  these  crops.  The  matter  is  so  well  arranged 
for  classroom  use  that  the  book  is  already  a  standard 
text  for  courses  in  forage  crops. 


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Farm  Management 

BY    G.    F.    WARREN,   PH.D. 

Professor  of  Farm  Management,  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture  at 
Cornell  University 

590  pp.,  ill,  i2mo,  $1.75 

In  this  book  the  author  discusses  at  length  the  various 
phases  of  farm  efficiency.  Among  the  topics  treated  are  the 
following :  the  selection  and  purchase  of  a  farm ;  the  selec- 
tion of  the  type  of  farming  adapted  to  the  conditions ;  the 
most  efficient  size  of  farm  for  different  kinds  of  farming; 
the  horses  and  equipment ;  capital  and  its  proper  distribu- 
tion in  the  farm  business ;  ways  of  starting  farming  with 
small  capital ;  methods  of  renting  farms  with  their  advan- 
tages from  the  standpoints  of  the  owner  and  farmer;  the 
management  of  machinery,  horses  and  men;  field  and 
building  management;  cropping  and  feeding  systems;  the 
marketing  of  farm  products;  methods  of  keeping  farm 
records  and  accounts. 

The  book  is  being  welcomed  not  only  because  it  is  the 
only  available  text-book  for  courses  on  farm  management, 
but  even  more  because  it  so  fully  meets  all  the  requirements 
of  such  a  book. 


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The  Marketing  of  Farm  Products 

BY  L.   D.  H.  WELD 

Professor  of  Business  Administration  in  Yale  University 

Cloth,  i2mo,  482  pp.,  $1.50 

This  book  aims  to  set  forth  the  fundamental  principles  of 
market  distribution  as  applied  to  the  marketing  of  agricul- 
tural products.  It  begins  by  pointing  out  the  place  that 
marketing  occupies  in  the  general  field  of  economics,  and 
by  applying  accepted  economic  principles  to  the  marketing 
process.  It  then  explains  the  general  organization  and 
methods  of  marketing,  beginning  with  marketing  at  country 
points,  and  passes  on  to  a  description  of  the  methods  and 
functions  of  the  various  classes  of  wholesale  dealers.  After 
describing  the  factors  affecting  the  cost  of  marketing,  illus- 
trated by  data  concerning  the  marketing  of  certain  specific 
products,  a  number  of  special  problems  are  treated,  such  as 
price  quotations,  future  trading,  inspection  and  grading, 
public  markets,  cooperative  marketing,  etc.  The  author 
has  attempted  to  describe  the  marketing  organization  as  it 
is,  and  to  treat  the  subject,  not  from  the  point  of  view  of 
any  particular  class  of  people  interested  in  the  problem,  but 
as  a  dispassionate  outsider  who  tries  to  get  a  comprehensive 
view  of  the  whole  subject.  The  book  is  very  clearly  written 
and  is  filled  with  stimulating  suggestions. 


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